ALL PSYC232 notes from week 1 to 3

Psychological Science Overview

• Purpose: Understanding how and why people think, feel, and behave through systematic evidence accumulation.

Key Objectives

• Model of Psychological Science: Understand both inductive and deductive approaches.

• Goals of Science: Identify and apply different scientific goals in psychological research.

• Nature of Science: Realize that science never proves anything definitively.

Epistemology

• Definition: The study of knowledge; questions include:

  • "What do we want to know?"

  • "How do we know what we know?"

  • "What do we do with what we know?"

• Karl Popper's View: Emphasized the need for falsifiability in scientific theories.

  • Non-falsifiable theories (e.g., Freud's theories) are not scientific.

Methodological Processes

Deductive Process

• Starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, then gathers data to test the hypothesis.

  • Example: If a broad idea is established, refine it into a specific testable hypothesis.

Inductive Process

• Begins with data collection to identify patterns and form theories.

  • Example: Understanding burnout among nurses through qualitative data.

Goals of Psychological Science

1. Describing phenomena (e.g., pedestrian crossing study).

   • Example finding: 1/3 of cars did not stop for pedestrians.

2. Predicting behavior (e.g., higher social class predicts unethical behavior).

3. Explaining emotional responses (e.g., understanding embarrassment as a functional emotion).

4. Controlling outcomes (e.g., using research to prevent depression through interventions).

Research Design Methods

• Types of Designs:

  1. Questionnaire/Survey

  2. Naturalistic Observation

  3. Experimental Designs

  4. Case Studies

Null Hypothesis (H0) Testing

• H0: No difference in aggression between ruminators and those distracted.

• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Higher aggression in ruminators.

• Key Insight: We can never prove hypotheses definitively; each study contributes to the broader understanding of knowledge.

Summary of Scientific Foundations

• Falsifiability is crucial to Popper’s scientific method.

• Psychological science employs both deductive and inductive methodologies to formulate and test theories.

• Goals include: description, prediction, explanation, and control.

• Employ various research designs while acknowledging the limitations of null hypothesis testing.

Lecture 2: Measurement in Psychology

Objectives

• Understand operationalization of variables.

• Use descriptive statistics for sampling.

• Ensure reliability and validity of psychological measurements.

Operationalization

• Definition: The process of turning concepts into measurable entities.

  • Example: How to measure constructs like obedience to authority or political ideology.

Measurement Scale Types

1. Nominal: Categorical data; measured by mode.

2. Ordinal: Ranking without meaningful distances; measured by median.

3. Interval: Equal distances but no true zero; can assess means.

4. Ratio: True zero point; means can be evaluated and compared.

Reliability and Validity in Measurements

• Reliability: Consistency of a measure over time.

  • Includes item, test-retest, and observer reliability factors.

• Validity: Accuracy of a measure; includes construct, internal, external, and statistical validity.

Key Concepts in Survey Design

• Potential Response Biases:

  • Demand characteristics and social desirability.

  • Acquiescence bias (tendency to agree).

  • Priming effects (impact previous questions have on subsequent responses).

Dealing with Biases

• Double-blind measures, confidentiality assurances, and test restructuring to improve data integrity.

Lecture 3: Ethical Considerations in Research

Core Ethical Principles

1. Respect/Autonomy: Participants must make autonomous decisions about their involvement.

2. Beneficence: Balance benefits against potential risks in research.

3. Justice: Fair distribution of risks and benefits among participants.

Ethical Application in Studies

• Participants should be informed, and ethical guidelines should align with societal values and laws.

Conclusion

• Each component of psychological research, including epistemology, methodology, measurement, and ethics, is interwoven in creating a comprehensive understanding of human behavior.