Purpose: Understanding how and why people think, feel, and behave through systematic evidence accumulation.
Model of Psychological Science: Understand both inductive and deductive approaches.
Goals of Science: Identify and apply different scientific goals in psychological research.
Nature of Science: Realize that science never proves anything definitively.
Definition: The study of knowledge; questions include:
"What do we want to know?"
"How do we know what we know?"
"What do we do with what we know?"
Karl Popper's View: Emphasized the need for falsifiability in scientific theories.
Non-falsifiable theories (e.g., Freud's theories) are not scientific.
Starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, then gathers data to test the hypothesis.
Example: If a broad idea is established, refine it into a specific testable hypothesis.
Begins with data collection to identify patterns and form theories.
Example: Understanding burnout among nurses through qualitative data.
Describing phenomena (e.g., pedestrian crossing study).
Example finding: 1/3 of cars did not stop for pedestrians.
Predicting behavior (e.g., higher social class predicts unethical behavior).
Explaining emotional responses (e.g., understanding embarrassment as a functional emotion).
Controlling outcomes (e.g., using research to prevent depression through interventions).
Types of Designs:
Questionnaire/Survey
Naturalistic Observation
Experimental Designs
Case Studies
H0: No difference in aggression between ruminators and those distracted.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Higher aggression in ruminators.
Key Insight: We can never prove hypotheses definitively; each study contributes to the broader understanding of knowledge.
Falsifiability is crucial to Popper’s scientific method.
Psychological science employs both deductive and inductive methodologies to formulate and test theories.
Goals include: description, prediction, explanation, and control.
Employ various research designs while acknowledging the limitations of null hypothesis testing.
Understand operationalization of variables.
Use descriptive statistics for sampling.
Ensure reliability and validity of psychological measurements.
Definition: The process of turning concepts into measurable entities.
Example: How to measure constructs like obedience to authority or political ideology.
Nominal: Categorical data; measured by mode.
Ordinal: Ranking without meaningful distances; measured by median.
Interval: Equal distances but no true zero; can assess means.
Ratio: True zero point; means can be evaluated and compared.
Reliability: Consistency of a measure over time.
Includes item, test-retest, and observer reliability factors.
Validity: Accuracy of a measure; includes construct, internal, external, and statistical validity.
Potential Response Biases:
Demand characteristics and social desirability.
Acquiescence bias (tendency to agree).
Priming effects (impact previous questions have on subsequent responses).
Double-blind measures, confidentiality assurances, and test restructuring to improve data integrity.
Respect/Autonomy: Participants must make autonomous decisions about their involvement.
Beneficence: Balance benefits against potential risks in research.
Justice: Fair distribution of risks and benefits among participants.
Participants should be informed, and ethical guidelines should align with societal values and laws.
Each component of psychological research, including epistemology, methodology, measurement, and ethics, is interwoven in creating a comprehensive understanding of human behavior.