AP Psychology Terms
Central Nervous System - The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System - The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
Autonomic Nervous System - The part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing; includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
Somatic Nervous System - The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Neurons - A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
Glial Cells - Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also involved in learning and thinking.
Spinal Cord - The central nervous system's conduit, transmitting nerve signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
Reflex Arc - A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee-jerk response; only takes 1 or 2 brain cells to complete.
Depolarization - A stimulus causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV; when reaching -55 mV, an action potential fires.
Refractory Period - A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.
Resting Potential - The voltage difference between the inside and outside of a neuron when not firing.
Reuptake - The process by which a neuron reabsorbs a neurotransmitter after it has passed through a synapse.
Brain Stem - Begins where the spinal cord enters the skull; connects the brain to the spinal cord.
Medulla - Controls heart rate, blood flow, respiration, vomiting, and cranial nerves.
Reticular Activating System - A network of brainstem nuclei and neurons coordinating essential functions necessary for survival.
Cerebellum - Controls motor function and balance, processes input from the inner ear and eyes, and enables muscle memory.
Limbic System - A neural system including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus; associated with emotions and drives.
Corpus Callosum - The band of fibers that connect the two brain hemispheres, facilitating communication between them.
Frontal Lobe - Responsible for planning, impulse control, and memory storage.
Parietal Lobe - Handles abstract/logical thinking and imagery.
Occipital Lobe - Processes visual information.
Temporal Lobe - Processes hearing, taste, and smell.
Somatosensory Region - Receives stimulation data from nerves.
Motor Cortex - Controls skeletal muscle movement.
Split Brain Research - Studies involving individuals with a severed corpus callosum to understand the distinct roles of brain hemispheres.
Broca Area - The brain's "dictionary," involved in speech production.
Wernicke Area - Involved in sentence structure and grammar comprehension.
Brain Plasticity - The brain’s ability to change and adapt, especially after damage or through experience.
EEG (Electroencephalograph) - Monitors electrical activity in the brain.
ESB (Electrical Stimulation of Brain) - Uses electrical currents via electrodes to stimulate brain areas and replace disrupted currents.
CT Scan (Computerized Tomography) - Uses x-rays to create detailed images of brain structures.
PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography) - Shows brain function by tracking chemicals injected into the brain.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) - Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of brain structures.
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) - Measures brain activity by tracking blood and oxygen flow.
Lesioning - A surgical procedure that involves destroying malfunctioning brain tissue.
Sleep - A periodic, natural loss of consciousness distinct from coma, anesthesia, or hibernation.
Circadian Rhythm - The body’s internal clock that regulates 24-hour cycles of sleep, temperature, and other functions.
Jet Lag - A temporary sleep disorder caused by the disruption of the body’s circadian rhythm due to time zone changes.
NREM1 - Light twilight sleep with relaxed muscles, slower breathing, theta waves, serotonin drop, and hypnic jerks.
NREM2 - Deeper relaxation, continued theta waves, appearance of sleep spindles; night terrors possible.
NREM3 - Deep sleep; delta waves begin, movement and digestion slow, sleepwalking and night terrors may occur.
REM Sleep - Dream phase with rapid eye movement, increased heart rate and breathing, and brain activity similar to being awake.
REM Rebound - The increase in REM sleep following sleep deprivation.
Insomnia - Recurring problems with falling or staying asleep
Here are the additional terms formatted as flashcards (term - definition):
Narcolepsy - A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the person may lapse directly into REM sleep at inappropriate times.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder - A disorder where a person physically acts out vivid, often violent dreams with vocal sounds and sudden limb movements.
Sleep Apnea - A sleep disorder marked by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated brief awakenings.
Somnambulism (Sleepwalking) - Occurs during NREM 3; muscle paralysis by GABA and glycine may be incomplete, allowing the sleeper to act out emotions tied to dreams.
Absolute Threshold - The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
Stimuli Detection (Signal Detection Theory) - A theory predicting how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background noise; influenced by experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND) - The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.
Weber’s Law - To be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage, not a fixed amount.
Synesthesia - A condition in which one sense is simultaneously perceived as another, such as tasting colors or seeing sounds.
Retina - The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that processes images and sends visual information to the brain.
Lens - Focuses light rays onto the retina.
Cones - Photoreceptors responsible for color and daylight vision.
Rods - Photoreceptors responsible for night vision and peripheral vision.
Afterimages - Visual images that remain after the original stimulus is removed, likely due to sensory adaptation.
Color Vision - The perception of reflected light rays; the color we see is the wavelength not absorbed by the object.
Prosopagnosia - A neurological disorder, also known as face blindness, making it difficult to recognize faces.
Blindsight - The ability of people who are cortically blind to respond to visual stimuli without conscious visual perception.
Pitch - The perceived highness or lowness of a sound, determined by its frequency.
Loudness - The subjective perception of sound intensity, influenced by the amplitude of sound waves.
Location (Sound Localization) - The brain's ability to determine where a sound is coming from using differences in arrival time and intensity between the ears.
Conduction Deafness - Hearing loss due to damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound to the cochlea.
Sensorineural Deafness - (Missing definition in your list — here's a complete one): Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve.
Vestibular Sense - The sense that monitors the head's position and balance, located in the inner ear.
Kinesthesis - The sense of the position and movement of individual body parts.
Pheromones - Chemicals secreted by animals that affect the behavior or development of others in the same species.
Gustation - The sense of taste; detects sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory).
Taste Receptors - Specialized cells on the tongue that detect and transmit taste information to the brain.
Here are your additional terms formatted as flashcards (term – definition):
Perception & Processing
Perception – The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling recognition of meaningful objects and events.
Bottom-Up Processing – Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information; often driven by unexpected stimuli.
Top-Down Processing – Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes; based on expectations and prior knowledge.
Schemas – Mental models in long-term memory used to organize and interpret information based on past experiences.
Contexts – The environment can influence how we perceive stimuli.
Gestalt Principles
Gestalt Principles – The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Phi Phenomenon – Perception of movement created by a series of still images shown in succession.
Figure and Ground – The visual system’s tendency to separate elements into a figure (the focus) and a background.
Proximity – Objects near each other are perceived as a group.
Similarity – Objects that are similar are grouped together.
Continuity – The tendency to perceive continuous patterns.
Simplicity – We interpret objects in the simplest way possible.
Closure – The tendency to fill in gaps in incomplete objects.
Perception of Depth and Distance
Perceptual Hypothesis – A guess made by the brain about what an object is, based on sensory cues and prior knowledge.
Depth Perception – The ability to judge the distance and three-dimensionality of objects using visual cues.
Linear Perspective – Parallel lines appear to converge at a point on the horizon.
Texture Gradients – Distant objects have less detail than closer ones.
Interposition – If one object overlaps another, it is perceived as closer.
Relative Size – Objects appearing smaller are perceived as farther away.
Height in Plane – Objects higher in the visual field are perceived as farther away.
Light and Shadow – Used by the brain to gauge depth and form.
Attention
Cocktail Party Effect – The ability to focus auditory attention on one stimulus while filtering out others.
Inattentional Blindness – Failure to notice visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.
Depth Cues
Binocular Cues – Depth cues (e.g., retinal disparity) requiring both eyes.
Monocular Cues – Depth cues available to either eye alone (includes interposition, linear perspective, texture gradients, relative size, height in plane, and light/shadow).
Visual Perception Concepts
Visual Constancies – Perception of objects as unchanging in shape, size, and color despite changes in retinal image.
Perceived Movement – The illusion that distant objects move slower than closer ones, or illusions that simulate movement.
Cognition & Thinking
Prototypes – Mental representations of typical examples for a concept.
Assimilation of Schemas – Adding new information to existing mental frameworks.
Algorithms – Step-by-step procedures used to solve problems systematically.
Heuristics – Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making; fast but error-prone.
Availability Heuristic – Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Representativeness Heuristic – Judging situations based on how similar they are to a prototype.
Anchoring Heuristic – Relying too heavily on the first piece of information received when making decisions.
Confirmation Bias – The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
Framing Effect – The way information is presented can affect decisions and judgments, even if the facts remain the same.
Here is the final set of flashcards (term – definition) from your provided content:
Cognition & Decision Making
Priming – Activation of certain associations, often unconsciously, which influences perception, memory, or response.
Framing – The way information is presented affects how people react, even if the information is the same (e.g., 90% survival vs. 10% death rate).
Gambler’s Fallacy – The belief that future probabilities are altered by past events in random situations (e.g., thinking tails is “due” after many heads).
Sunk-Cost Fallacy – Continuing a behavior due to previously invested resources (time, money, effort), even when it may not be rational.
Critical Thinking – Analyzing and evaluating information or arguments in a disciplined and systematic way.
Creativity – The ability to generate new and original ideas.
Problem Solving & Thinking
Convergent Thinking – Finding a single, correct solution to a problem.
Divergent Thinking – Generating multiple, creative solutions to a single problem.
Judgments & Decision Making
Moral Judgment – Evaluating actions or behaviors for their ethical correctness.
Intuitive Judgment – Decisions based on gut feelings or instincts.
Value Judgment – Assessing based on personal values rather than objective criteria.
Decision Making – Choosing between alternatives, influenced by preferences, values, and beliefs.
Memory Types & Processes
Implicit Memory – Procedural memory; unconscious memory of skills and tasks.
Explicit Memory – Declarative memory; conscious recall of facts and experiences.
Prospective Memories – Remembering to do something in the future.
Long-Term Potentiation – Strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity; a basis for learning and memory.
Working Memory – Also called short-term memory; holds information temporarily for processing.
Sensory Memory (Multi-Store Model)
Iconic Memory – Brief memory of visual stimuli (mental images).
Echoic Memory – Brief memory of auditory stimuli (sounds).
Short-Term Memory – Temporary memory holding about 7 items; part of working memory.
Long-Term Memory – Limitless storehouse for important or meaningful information.
Effortful Memory – Requires active processing, attention, and rehearsal to encode.
Automatic Memory – Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
Shallow Processing – Surface-level processing, often resulting in short-term retention.
Deep Processing – Encoding based on meaning, leading to long-term memory.
Structural Memory – Encoding of visual features (e.g., recognizing a cat based on parts).
Phonemic Memory – Encoding of sound, especially speech-related sounds.
Semantic Memory – Memory involving the meaning of words, phrases, or events.
Memory Strategies
Mnemonic Devices – Memory aids using imagery or organizational devices.
Method of Loci – Associating information with physical locations (memory palace).
Link or Peg-Word Method – Linking items visually and vividly to remember them.
Chunking – Grouping information into meaningful units (e.g., dates, acronyms).
Hierarchies – Organizing memory in nested categories for better retrieval.
Categories – Grouping information based on shared traits or concepts.
Spacing Effect – Information is better retained when learned over time.
Massed Practice – Learning material in one large session (cramming).
Distributed Practice – Learning material in smaller sessions spread over time.
Serial Position Effect – Tendency to recall first and last items best in a list.
Primacy Effect – Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.
Recency Effect – Better recall for items at the end of a list.
Rehearsal & Memory Storage
Maintenance Rehearsal – Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal – Relating new information to existing knowledge for deeper learning.
Autobiographical Memory – Memory of personal life events; starts around age 3.
Memory Loss & Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia – Loss of memory for events before a trauma or disease.
Anterograde Amnesia – Inability to form new memories after trauma.
Alzheimer’s Disease – Progressive brain disorder leading to memory loss and cognitive decline.
Infantile Amnesia – Inability to recall early childhood memories, typically before age 3.
Memory Retrieval
Recall – Retrieving information from memory without cues (e.g., fill-in-the-blank tests).
Recognition – Identifying previously learned information (e.g., multiple choice tests).
Context Dependent Memory – Memory is easier to retrieve in the same context it was encoded.
Mood Congruent Memory – Easier recall of memories that match current mood.
State Dependent Memory – Memory retrieval is better when in the same internal state as when encoded.
Testing Effect – Retrieval practice enhances long-term memory retention.
Metacognition – Thinking about one’s own thinking processes.
Forgetting & Memory Distortion
Forgetting Curve – Memory loss is steepest soon after learning; what remains after 6 days tends to persist.
Encoding Failure – Failure to process and store information initially.
Proactive Interference – Older memories interfere with learning new information.
Retroactive Interference – New information interferes with the recall of old information.
Tip of the Tongue – Partial retrieval where you know you know something but can’t fully recall it.
Lack of Retrieval Cues – Difficulty recalling memories due to absence of prompts.
Repression – Unconscious blocking of unpleasant memories.
Misinformation Effect – Incorporating incorrect information into memory after an event.
Source Amnesia – Inability to recall where or how one acquired a memory.
Constructive Memory – The brain fills in gaps, leading to false or distorted memories.
Memory Consolidation – Process by which memories become stable over time.
Imagination Inflation – Repeatedly imagining an event increases belief that it actually happened.
Intelligence
IQ (Intelligence Quotient) – A score derived from standardized tests; calculated as (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100.
Flynn Effect – The observation that IQ scores have increased over generations.
Poverty Discrimination – Poverty can lower IQ scores by about 13 points due to environmental stressors.
Standardized Tests – Tests administered and scored in a consistent way.
Construct Validity – The extent to which a test measures the concept it intends to measure.
Predictive Validity – How well a test predicts future performance or behavior.
Reliability – The consistency of a test’s results over time.
Test-Retest Reliability – Consistency of test results when retaken.
Split-Half Reliability – Consistency between two halves of the same test.
Achievement Tests – Measure what someone has learned (e.g., STAAR).
Aptitude Tests – Measure ability to learn or potential (e.g., ACT, SAT).
Fixed Mindset – Belief that intelligence or ability cannot change.
Growth Mindset – Belief that abilities can improve with effort and learning.
Nature vs. Nurture – Is it biology or the environment that impacts your development the most?
Teratogens – Agents like chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Maternal Illness – Some diseases, like German measles, can cause birth defects because the illness is passed through the mother.
Genetic Mutations – Mutations, such as Down syndrome, that cause developmental problems.
Hormones and Environment – Factors influencing growth and development.
Milestones in Development – Key physical achievements throughout life.
Fine and Gross Motor Development – Coordination of small and large muscle movements.
Reflexes (e.g., Rooting Reflex) – If you touch a newborn’s cheek, they will turn toward the touch, open their mouths, and expect food.
Visual Cliff Experiment – Plexiglass over what looks like a cliff; infants won’t crawl over the "edge" after a certain developmental stage.
Cognitive Development Across a Lifespan
Piaget
Schemas – Conceptual frameworks for organizing and interpreting information.
Assimilation – Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.
Accommodation – Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information.
Developmental Stages – Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational.
Vygotsky
Scaffolding – Learning as a series of building blocks leading to independence.
Zone of Proximal Development – The space between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.
Crystallized Intelligence – Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
Fluid Intelligence – The ability to think abstractly and solve new problems; tends to decrease in late adulthood.
Dementia – The loss of cognitive functioning, interfering with daily life.
Language Development
Communication – A shared system of arbitrary symbols.
Phonemes – The smallest unit of sound in a language.
Morphemes – The smallest unit of meaning in a language (prefixes, suffixes, root words).
Semantics – The study of meaning in language.
Cooing – Soft, vowel-like sounds made by infants.
Babbling – Infant experimenting with uttering sounds before forming words.
One-Word Stage – Early vocabulary (e.g., “banana” or “doggy”).
Telegraphic Speech – Simple sentence structure containing mostly nouns and verbs.
Social-Emotional Development Across a Lifespan
Microsystems – Immediate environment and relationships.
Mesosystems – Interaction between two microsystems.
Exosystems – Indirect environments that impact development.
Macrosystems – Cultural influences on development.
Chronosystems – How time and life events shape development.
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian – Strict parenting with little warmth.
Authoritative – Balanced parenting with firm discipline and warmth.
Permissive – Loving but lenient parenting.
Attachment Styles
Secure Attachment – Responsive caregivers create curiosity and independence.
Harlow’s Monkey Experiment – Study on attachment in infant monkeys.
Separation Anxiety – Distress when separated from caregivers.
Avoidant Attachment – Distant parenting leading to emotional withdrawal.
Anxious Attachment – Inconsistent parenting leading to insecurity.
Disorganized Attachment – Erratic parenting causing distress and confusion.
Adolescence and Identity Formation
Imaginary Audience – Feeling that everyone is watching you.
Personal Fable – Belief in personal uniqueness and invincibility.
Social Clock – Cultural timeline for life milestones.
Emerging Adulthood – Transitional stage between adolescence and full adulthood.
Diffusion – Lack of exploration or commitment to identity.
Foreclosure – Committing to an identity without exploration.
Moratorium – Actively exploring identity options without commitment.
Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s Stages of Development – Key emotional and social challenges at different life stages.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) – Factors affecting lifelong emotional health.
Identity through Possible Selves – Concepts shaping self-perception:
Racial/Ethnic Identity
Gender Identity
Sexual Orientation
Religious Identity
Occupational Identity
Familial Identity
Learning and Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – Naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Natural reaction.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Learned trigger for a response.
Conditioned Response (CR) – Learned reaction.
Learning the Association/Acquisition – The process of forming and strengthening responses.
Associative Learning – Learning to associate a response with a consequence.
Spontaneous Recovery – Temporary reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior.
Discrimination – Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
Generalization – Tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Higher Order Conditioning – Pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned stimulus.
Counter Conditioning – Behavioral therapy technique replacing an unwanted behavior with a desired one.
Taste Aversion – Occurs when eating a substance is followed by illness.
One-Trial Conditioning – Learning occurs after a single pairing of response and stimulus.
Biological Preparedness – Organisms are predisposed to learn certain associations more easily.
Habituation – Decreasing responsiveness to repeated stimulation.
Operant Conditioning
Law of Effect – Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are repeated; those followed by unsatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Reinforcement – Strengthens the behavior it follows.
Continuous Reinforcement – Reinforces a behavior every time.
Partial Reinforcement – Reinforces a behavior part of the time, leading to stronger resistance to extinction.
Fixed Interval – Reinforces after a specific time has elapsed.
Variable Interval – Reinforces at unpredictable time intervals.
Fixed Ratio – Reinforces after a specific number of responses.
Variable Ratio – Reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses.
Punishment – Decreases the behavior it follows.
Shaping – Gradually guiding behavior toward the desired response.
Instinctive Drift – Trained animals reverting to natural behaviors.
Superstitious Behavior – Actions performed based on perceived control over fate.
Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning
Vicarious Conditioning – Learning by observing others.
Insight Learning – Sudden realization of a solution to a problem.
Latent Learning – Learning that remains hidden until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Cognitive Maps – Mental representations of environments.
Social Psychology
Social and Multicultural Perspectives
Attribution Theory – Explaining behavior by attributing it to the situation or personal disposition.
Attitude Formation and Change – Feelings influenced by beliefs that predispose behavior.
Stereotypes – Generalized beliefs about a group of people.
Implicit Attitudes – Unconscious evaluations of people, objects, or concepts.
Just World Phenomenon – Belief that people get what they deserve.
Ingroup – People with whom we share a common identity.
Outgroup Bias – Perceived differences from those outside our group.
Ethnocentrism – Belief that one’s own culture is superior.
Belief Perseverance – Maintaining beliefs despite contradictory evidence.
Confirmation Bias – Seeking only information that supports one's views.
Cognitive Dissonance – Discomfort from holding conflicting thoughts.
Psychology of Social Situations
Social Norms – Accepted and expected behaviors within society.
Elaboration Likelihood Model – Two routes to persuasion: central (logical) and peripheral (cues like attractiveness).
Halo Effect – Positive impression in one area influences other perceptions.
Foot-in-the-Door Technique – People who agree to small requests later comply with larger ones.
Door-in-the-Face Technique – Large request is rejected, followed by a smaller one that is accepted.
Conformity – Adjusting behavior to align with a group.
Obedience – Following authority orders.
Individualism – Prioritizing personal independence.
Collectivism – Prioritizing group goals over personal ones.
Multiculturalism – Coexistence of diverse cultures.
Group Polarization – Group discussions strengthen members' existing opinions.
Groupthink – Desire for harmony overrides realistic decision-making.
Diffusion of Responsibility – People feel less personal responsibility in group settings.
Social Loafing – Less effort in group tasks compared to solo work.
Deindividuation – Loss of self-awareness in group situations.
Social Facilitation – Improved performance in presence of others.
False Consensus Effect – Overestimating how much others agree with one's views.
Superordinate Goals – Shared goals requiring cooperation.
Social Traps – Conflicting parties pursuing individual interests over group welfare.
Altruism – Unselfish concern for others.
Social Reciprocity Norm – Expectation to help those who have helped us.
Social Responsibility Norm – Expectation to help those in need.
Bystander Effect – People are less likely to help when others are present.
Industrial/Organizational Psychologists – Work to improve effectiveness and well-being in workplaces.
Burnout – Psychological exhaustion due to unmanaged stress.
heories of Personality
Ego Defense Mechanisms – Strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety (Denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, sublimation).
Projection Tests – Personality tests like the Rorschach that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal inner dynamics.
Humanistic Theories of Personality
Humanistic Perspective – Focus on personal growth and potential.
Unconditional Positive Regard – Acceptance of a person regardless of circumstances.
Self-Actualization – The process of realizing one's full potential.
Social Cognitive Theories of Personality
Reciprocal Determinism – Interactions between cognition, behavior, and environment shape personality.
Self-Efficacy – One's belief in their ability to achieve a goal.
Self-Esteem – Overall evaluation of self-worth.
Self-Concept – A person’s perception and understanding of themselves.
Trait Theories of Personality
Big Five Personality Traits – Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion.
Personality Inventories – Questionnaires assessing personality traits.
Factor Analysis – Statistical technique for examining how different traits interact to form temperament.
Motivation
Motivation – A need or desire that directs behavior.
Drive Reduction Theory – Physiological needs create an aroused state motivating behavior.
Homeostasis – Maintaining balance in internal states.
Optimum Level of Arousal – Moderate arousal leads to the best performance.
Yerkes-Dodson Law – Arousal improves performance up to a point, after which it hinders it.
Self-Determination Theory – Explains behavior in terms of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Intrinsic Motivation – Drive from personal interest or enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation – Drive from external rewards like praise or money.
Incentive Theory – External stimuli motivate behavior.
Instincts – Innate behaviors common across a species.
Lewin’s Motivation Conflicts Theory
Approach-Approach Conflict – Choosing between two appealing options.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict – A single goal has both positive and negative aspects.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Choosing between undesirable options.
Sensation Seeking Theory
Thrill-Seeking – The psychology behind risk-taking and adventure.
Disinhibition – Difficulty in controlling impulsive behavior.
Boredom Susceptibility – Dislike of repetition or sameness.
Eating Behavior
Hormonal Influences
Ghrelin – Signals hunger.
Leptin – Regulates metabolism and decreases hunger.
External Factors in Eating
Presence of Food – Seeing food images increases hunger.
Time of Day – Circadian rhythms influence digestion.
Social Gatherings – People tend to eat more in social settings.
Emotion
Emotion – A combination of physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis – Facial expressions can trigger corresponding emotions.
Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion – Positive emotions expand cognitive and behavioral capacity.
Expression of Emotion – Includes anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear.
Elicitors for Emotional Expression – Events that trigger emotional responses.
Stress – The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Hypertension – A condition where the force of blood pushing against the artery walls is consistently too high, often linked to psychological factors like stress and personality traits.
Headaches – Often understood in the context of their relationship to psychological factors like stress, anxiety, and emotional states.
Immune Suppression – During sympathetic stimulation, your body gets ready to react to stress, including shutting down the immune system.
Stressors – Things that push our buttons.
Eustress – Motivating stress.
Distress – Debilitating stress.
Traumatic or Daily Hassles – Different types of stressors that can impact mental health.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) – Potentially traumatic events that occur during childhood (0-17 years), such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction, which can have long-lasting negative effects on mental and physical health.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – The body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Fight-Flight-Freeze Response – A survival mechanism where individuals react to perceived danger by fighting, fleeing, or freezing.
Tend and Befriend Theory – Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
Problem-Focused Coping – A stress management technique that involves directly addressing the root cause of a stressful situation by actively trying to change or eliminate it.
Emotion-Focused Coping – Managing the emotional response to a stressful situation rather than directly addressing or changing the stressor itself.
Meditation – A form of self-hypnosis, usually used to calm the mind.
Medication – A branch of psychology that studies the use of medications to treat mental health disorders.
Positive Psychology – A field of psychology that focuses on human strengths, well-being, and personal growth.
Gratitude – Practicing gratitude, which involves appreciating the good in life, leading to improved mental and physical health and greater resilience.
Exercising Signature Strengths – Twenty-four signature (higher) strengths associated with moral traits such as integrity, valor, and kindness.
Positive Objective Experiences – External, measurable factors that contribute to well-being, such as financial stability, health, and quality relationships.
Happiness – The pleasant life (focusing on positive emotions), the good life (characterized by engagement and flow), and the meaningful life (centered on purpose and contribution).
Subjective Well-Being – An individual's overall evaluation of their own life satisfaction, happiness, and sense of well-being.
Six Categories of Virtues – Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Post-Traumatic Growth – A positive psychological transformation that can occur after experiencing a traumatic event, characterized by increased personal strength, new possibilities, stronger relationships, appreciation of life, and spiritual change.
Abnormal – Anything that deviates from typical or expected behavior, thoughts, or emotions.
Explaining and Classifying Psychological Disorders – The process of defining mental health conditions based on symptoms, causes, and effects.
Nature of Disorder – The characteristics and underlying causes of a psychological condition.
Individual Being Diagnosed – The person undergoing evaluation for a potential psychological disorder.
Presence of Cultural/Societal Norms – The influence of stigma, racism, sexism, ageism, and discrimination on mental health diagnosis and treatment.
Diagnostic Tools – Standardized systems used to identify mental health disorders.
APA Manual (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - DSM) – The American diagnostic tool for classifying mental disorders.
International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD) – The international diagnostic tool for mental health conditions.
Eclectic Approach – A therapeutic method that combines elements from various psychological theories to tailor treatment for individuals.
Maladaptive Learned Associations – Negative or harmful behaviors, thoughts, or emotions that are ingrained through experience and disrupt functioning.
Psychodynamic Perspective – Emphasizes unconscious drives and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.
Humanistic Perspective – Focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and free will, emphasizing individual experience and potential.
Cognitive Perspective – Examines mental processes like thinking, perception, memory, and problem-solving to understand behavior.
Evolutionary Perspective – Views human behavior and mental processes through the lens of natural selection and survival advantages.
Sociocultural Perspective – Explores how cultural and social influences shape thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Biological Perspective – Explains behavior and mental processes through biological factors like brain structure, genetics, and hormones.
Biopsychosocial Perspective – A holistic approach considering the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in mental health.
Diathesis-Stress Model – Suggests that disorders arise from a combination of genetic predisposition (diathesis) and environmental stressors.
Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders – The classification of mental disorders based on symptoms and causes.
Neurodevelopmental Disorders – Conditions that emerge early in development, affecting cognitive, social, and emotional functioning.
ADHD – A disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, sometimes considered too broadly defined.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – A neurodevelopmental condition with varying levels of social and communication difficulties, including Asperger's at the highest level.
Possible Causes (Environmental, Physiological, or Genetic) – Factors contributing to psychological disorders, including genetics, brain function, and environmental influences.
Schizophrenia Disorders – Severe mental health conditions affecting perception, thinking, and behavior.
Issues in Five Areas – Schizophrenia symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms.
Genetic or Biological Link – Suggests schizophrenia has hereditary and neurological roots.
Depressive Disorders – Mental health conditions characterized by persistent sadness, low energy, and lack of interest in activities.
Major Depressive Disorder – A serious mood disorder causing significant emotional, cognitive, and behavioral disruptions.
Persistent Depressive Disorder – A chronic form of depression lasting at least two years, with mild to moderate symptoms
Possible Causes – Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive factors influencing mental health disorders.
Bipolar Disorders
Bipolar 1 Disorder – A mental health condition characterized by extreme mood swings, including manic episodes and, often, depressive episodes.
Bipolar 2 Disorder – A mood disorder marked by at least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode, but without a full manic episode.
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety Disorders – A broad term encompassing disorders characterized by excessive worry, uneasiness, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties.
Specific Phobia – An irrational, persistent fear of an object or situation, leading to avoidance disproportionate to the actual danger posed.
Agoraphobia – Fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or open spaces, where one has felt a loss of control or panic.
Arachnophobia – Irrational fear of spiders.
Panic Disorder – A mental health condition marked by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and persistent worry about future attacks.
Panic Attacks – Sudden episodes of intense fear or distress, often accompanied by physical symptoms like heart palpitations and dizziness.
Culture-Bound Anxiety Disorders – Anxiety disorders unique to specific cultural contexts, such as ataque de nervios.
Social Anxiety Disorder – Intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of interaction (formerly known as social phobia).
Taijin Kyofusho – A Japanese culture-bound syndrome characterized by an extreme fear of embarrassing or offending others in social situations.
General Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – A condition marked by excessive, persistent worrying that interferes with daily life, even when concerns are unrealistic.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – A disorder where individuals experience repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and feel compelled to perform certain actions (compulsions).
Obsessions – Intrusive, unwanted thoughts, urges, or mental images that cause anxiety.
Compulsions – Repetitive behaviors or rituals performed to reduce anxiety caused by obsessions.
Hoarding Disorder – A condition related to OCD but distinct, involving compulsive accumulation of items that do not respond well to medication.
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative Disorders – Mental health conditions involving disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception.
Dissociative Amnesia (with or without fugue) – Memory loss regarding personal details, unrelated to typical forgetting.
Fugue – A temporary state of amnesia in which a person may travel unexpectedly and be unaware of their past identity.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) – Formerly called multiple personality disorder, involving the presence of two or more distinct personality states.
Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
Hypervigilance – Heightened state of alertness, constantly scanning for potential threats.
Severe Anxiety – Persistent worry, fear, and dread that interfere with daily functioning.
Flashbacks – Intense, vivid recollections of traumatic or stressful experiences.
Insomnia – Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Emotional Detachment – Reduced ability to connect with emotions or relationships.
Hostility – Aggressive, cynical, or irritable behavior toward others.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – A disorder resulting from trauma, characterized by flashbacks, nightmares, extreme anxiety, and intrusive thoughts.
Feeding and Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa – An eating disorder marked by an extreme reduction in food intake and distorted body image.
Bulimia Nervosa – Cycles of binge eating followed by purging or excessive exercise, often accompanied by body image distortion.
Personality Disorders
Symptoms – Patterns of behavior and experience that deviate from cultural norms, are inflexible, persist over time, and cause distress or impairment.
Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric Behavior):
Paranoid Personality Disorder – Persistent distrust and suspicion, often accompanied by persecutory delusions.
Schizoid Personality Disorder – Preference for solitude, emotional detachment, and limited social engagement.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder – A pattern of odd thoughts, behaviors, and interpersonal difficulties.
Cluster B (Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic):
Antisocial Personality Disorder – Impulsive, irresponsible behavior often linked to criminal actions.
Histrionic Personality Disorder – Excessive emotionality, attention-seeking behavior, and dramatic expressions.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder – Grandiosity, excessive need for admiration, and lack of empathy.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) – Instability in self-image, emotions, and relationships.
Cluster C (Anxious or Fearful Behavior):
Avoidant Personality Disorder – Intense fear of rejection, leading to extreme social inhibition.
Dependent Personality Disorder – Extreme reliance on others for emotional and decision-making support.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) – Perfectionism, rigidity, and excessive control over routines and order.
Therapies & Psychological Treatment
History of Deinstitutionalization – Shift in the late 20th century from large mental institutions to community-based care.
Decentralized Treatment – Modern mental health care involving medication, therapy, and personalized support.
APA Ethics – Guidelines ensuring patient rights, dignity, and ethical treatment in psychology.
Psychodynamic Therapies – Approaches based on Freud’s theories, focusing on unconscious forces and childhood influences.
Free Association – A psychoanalytic technique where patients verbalize thoughts without censorship.
Dream Interpretation – Analysis of dreams to uncover unconscious desires and conflicts.
Cognitive Therapies – Focused on identifying and correcting maladaptive thought patterns.
Cognitive Restructuring – A technique in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) to challenge and replace negative thinking patterns.
Fear Hierarchies – A structured list of feared stimuli or situations, ranked from least to most distressing.
Focus on Cognitive Triad – Negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future.
Applied Behavioral Analysis – A scientific approach that studies human and animal behavior, focusing on understanding, explaining, and predicting responses.
Exposure Therapies – Behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality therapy, that treat anxiety by gradually exposing individuals to their fears.
Aversion Therapies – A counterconditioning method that associates an unpleasant state (e.g., nausea) with an unwanted behavior (e.g., drinking alcohol).
Token Economies – Reward-based systems where individuals earn tokens that can be exchanged for incentives.
Biofeedback – A therapeutic technique using electronic sensors to monitor physiological processes like heart rate and muscle tension.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (CBT) – Therapy that teaches new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting by addressing cognitive distortions.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) – Incorporates mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotional regulation, and interpersonal skills to manage emotions effectively.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) – A confrontational cognitive therapy by Albert Ellis that challenges irrational, self-defeating beliefs.
Humanistic Therapies – Focuses on self-fulfillment, growth, personal responsibility, and conscious thought, rather than curing illnesses.
Person-Centered Therapy – A humanistic approach promoting growth, unconditional positive regard, and self-concept development.
Group Therapy – Therapy conducted in groups rather than individually, providing social support and shared experiences.
Hypnosis – Used to manage pain and anxiety, but not for accurate memories or age regression.
Medications & Biomedical Treatments
Psychoactive Medications – Drugs used to treat severe mental health disorders like schizophrenia.
Antidepressants – Medications treating depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD (e.g., SSRIs).
Antianxiety Drugs – Medications for anxiety and agitation (e.g., Xanax, Ativan).
Lithium – A powerful mood stabilizer primarily used for bipolar disorder.
Antipsychotic Medications – Drugs for schizophrenia and severe thought disorders.
Tardive Dyskinesia – A neurological condition causing involuntary, repetitive movements, often due to long-term antipsychotic use.
Surgical or Invasive Procedures
Psychosurgery – Neurosurgical techniques that may involve lesioning brain areas.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) – Pulses of magnetic energy applied to the brain to stimulate or suppress activity.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) – A biomedical therapy for severe depression, involving brief electrical stimulation of the brain.
Lobotomy – A rare and outdated psychosurgical procedure once used to treat emotional and violent behavior.
Research Methods & Design
Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Studies – Differentiating between research that manipulates variables (experimental) and research that observes without manipulation (non-experimental).
Hypothesis – A proposed explanation that must be falsifiable and testable.
Operational Definitions of Variables – Clear, measurable definitions for variables in a study.
Independent Variable – The manipulated factor in an experiment.
Dependent Variable – The outcome factor that may change in response to the independent variable.
Confounding Variables – Uncontrolled factors that might influence the results.
Representative Sample – A group that closely matches the characteristics of the target population.
Random Sampling – A selection method where every individual has an equal chance of inclusion.
Convenience Sampling – Choosing participants based on availability rather than random selection.
Sampling Bias – A flawed process resulting in unrepresentative samples.
Generalization – The extent to which study results apply to broader populations.
Experimental Controls & Procedures
Placebo Use – An inert substance or condition used to test psychological effects based on expectations alone.
Single-Blind Study – The participant is unaware of whether they are receiving the real treatment or placebo.
Double-Blind Study – Both the participant and researchers are blind to treatment conditions, reducing bias.
Qualitative Research (Structured Interviews) – Descriptive data collection methods focusing on experience and meaning.
Self-Report Bias – When individuals distort answers due to memory, misunderstanding, or personal motives.
Social Desirability Bias – A tendency to answer in a way that looks favorable rather than truthfully.
Quantitative Data (Likert Scales) – Numerical data measured through rating scales and statistical analysis.
Peer Review – Experts evaluate the quality and validity of research before publication.
Replication – Repeating a study with different participants and settings to confirm findings.
Correlational Studies – Investigates how two factors relate to each other but doesn’t establish causation.
Ethics in Psychological Research
Informed Consent & Assent – Participants must be aware of the study’s nature before agreeing to participate.
Participant Confidentiality – Ensures privacy and protection of participant information.
Deception & Debriefing – Ethical post-study explanation where any misleading information is clarified