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Railways, Economic Development, and Suffrage
The Long Depression and Its Discontents
Overview of the Long Depression
The Long Depression occurred from 1873 to 1896.
It is characterized as a global economic depression.
It had enduring effects that lasted into the 20th century in various parts of the world.
Contributed to significant social and labor unrest in Britain and the United States.
Increased the dependency of colonial and neo-colonial regions.
Coincided with climatic changes such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles that led to widespread famine in India and South America, particularly during the years 1876-78 and 1896-97.
Canadian Prairies also experienced climatic disruptions, including droughts, extreme rainfalls, and locust infestations.
El Niño and Canadian Climate
Impact on Canadian Weather Patterns
El Niño and Southern Pacific Oscillation tend to produce warmer and milder winters in Central and Western Canada.
Limited data for Western Canada in the 1870s exists, though it may have affected observations by botanist William Macoun, potentially misleadingly portraying the Palliser Triangle as more habitable than it was.
While Western Canada experienced a more favorable climate, this was often undermined by economic problems exacerbated by ENSO cycles in other regions.
The Long Depression in Canada
Economic and Climatic Effects
In Canada, the Long Depression burst the Confederation economic bubble.
Climatic effects were minimal in Central and Eastern Canada, but economic effects were severe yet not as devastating as those seen in the 1930s.
This period lasted longer than the broader global depression itself.
The Canadian politicians faced challenges trying to resolve the issues using economic tools that were successful in other regions.
Economic Levers Available to Canada
Options for Economic Recovery
Canadian politicians explored two main avenues:
Free Trade (Reciprocity): Seen as a solution to the economic crisis.
Protectionism: Involves raising tariff barriers to exclude cheap foreign goods.
Economic Development Following Confederation
Perspectives on Reciprocity
The Liberal Party adopted free trade with the U.S. as a permanent plank in its platform.
Free trade was also part of Conservative Party policy until 1876.
The U.S. presented a large market seeking raw materials, which Canada could provide, presenting both an opportunity and complication:
The U.S. was self-sufficient in many raw materials and reluctant to allow Canadian suppliers to compete.
Britain continued to be the largest market for Canadian exports until the 20th century, complicating the drive towards free trade with the U.S.
Perils of an Export Economy
Economic Concerns
Canada's economy primarily relied on raw material exports: grain, coal, gold, lumber, fish, and dairy products.
Although manufacturing produced some domestic goods, the economy hinged on the demand sustained by raw material exports.
Canadian politicians aspired for unrestricted access to the American market but often encountered stipulations favoring the U.S.
Canada developed a triangular economy:
Exports of raw materials to both the U.S. and Britain.
Imports of manufactured goods chiefly from the U.S.
This arrangement proved unsatisfactory and led some Canadian politicians to seek more effective solutions.
The Myth of Self-Sufficiency
Misconceptions About Canadian Economy
A widespread belief existed that 19th-century Canadians were self-sufficient farmers—this was largely untrue.
Few Canadians engaged in subsistence farming.
Even the Métis and First Nations primarily interacted with the global economy through the fur trade, with exceptions like the Prairie bison hunters.
Political developments in the U.S. disrupted the economy of these hunters.
Canada predominantly operated under a capitalist economy characterized by both benefits (improved lifestyle) and drawbacks (vulnerability to global economic disruptions leading to job losses).
The Philosophy of Railways
Beliefs Surrounding Rail Development
The 19th century embodied a strong belief in the significance of railways for economic development, popularly encapsulated in the phrase “If you build it, they will come.”
The Railway Boom
Railway Construction in Canada
The railway boom initiated railway construction across Canada, starting with the Canadian Pacific Railway, followed by smaller regional systems in provinces like Manitoba, British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes.
Western Canadian branch railways eventually consolidated into Canadian Northern Railways, aiming to create a transcontinental railway.
By 1895, Canada had three existing or anticipated transcontinental railways planned.
The Cost of Rail
Financial Implications
Railways were costly to construct and necessitated substantial government subsidies to attract private investors.
Both federal and provincial governments financed railways through loan guarantees, minimal cash grants, land grants, and tax breaks.
Governments often possessed cash but were rich in land (due to various treaties), leading incentives to focus predominantly on land grants.
Railways faced widespread resentment from Canadians, as they often appeared to benefit disproportionately from government support, impacting public finances.
The National Policy
Creation of Canada’s Internal Market
The National Policy borrowed economic strategies successfully implemented in the U.S., France, and Germany.
Aimed at building an internal market to enhance Canadian self-sufficiency.
Canada had an abundance of raw materials and space but lacked domestic markets for those goods.
The equation underpinning this strategy emphasized increasing the population and fostering intra-Canadian trade and connection.
Development of the National Policy
Implementation in 1878
Developed by Sir John A. MacDonald in 1876, the National Policy became the foundation of the Conservative election platform in 1878.
It combined a transcontinental railway construction program, a protective tariff, and an immigration initiative.
The policy was actively implemented from 1879 onward.
Importance of the Railway
Facilitating National Integration
The Canadian Pacific Railway aimed to interlink Canada from East to West and promote the formation of a national economy.
The natural economic delineation favored North-South trade (with the U.S.), making railway construction essential for the success of the National Policy.
Protective Tariff
Aimed at Fortifying Domestic Manufacturing
The protective tariff specifically targeted foreign manufactured goods.
Its purpose was to safeguard and bolster the domestic manufacturing sector.
The policy intended to limit competition from American and British manufactured goods while supporting the growth of Canada's manufacturing economy.
This model envisioned raw materials produced in Western Canada, transported East for manufacturing or export to Europe, while manufactured goods would circulate West.
Purpose of the Protective Tariff
Mechanism for Economic Development
Import duties imposed by the National Policy were instrumental in fostering a national economy.
By obstructing foreign manufactured goods, the policy stimulated intra-Canadian transport of products.
The name “National Policy” reflected its intent to unify Canadian commerce.
Immigration Programme
Goals within the National Policy
The immigration program was integral to the National Policy’s design.
It aimed to cultivate a domestic consumer population, particularly in Western Canada.
Sought to create a market for Canadian manufactured products, such as agricultural machinery and domestic goods.
Additionally, it ensured a supply of raw materials for factories based in Eastern Canada.
The Industrial Economy
Transition from Agriculture to Urban Manufacturing
The National Policy catalyzed a transition from a rural agricultural economy to an urban manufacturing economy.
Cities grew substantially during this time, and farms expanded as well.
Economic development in Western Canada was also industrial by nature, including coal mines, fish canneries, and lumbering operations.
Large cattle ranching on the Prairies further accelerated the expansion of grain farms.
A significant shift occurred towards big businesses and branch plants, altering the dynamic between workers and owners.
A managerial class emerged to oversee factories and mines but did not own them.
This period also fostered a large urban workforce.
Growth of the Middle Class
Changing Employment Landscapes
The middle class saw considerable growth during this period.
This included factory managers, white-collar workers, educators, civil servants, and clerical staff.
However, it was less stable than previous generations, with many facing the risk of falling into the working class.
Conditions in the New Economy
Challenges Faced by Workers
Most industrial jobs were characterized by low pay, poor working conditions, and safety risks.
Many of these jobs were filled by new immigrant workers.
The Dunsmuir coal mines on Vancouver Island became notorious for employing a rotating workforce of immigrants, often non-English speaking.
Rapid urbanization and lack of town planning led to slums in areas like Cabbagetown, Griffintown, Pointe St. Charles, and East Vancouver.
The Labour Movement
Evolution from Craft to Industrial Unions
Trade unions were legalized in Canada by Sir John A. MacDonald in 1878.
Craft unions, such as the United Brotherhood of Carpenters, preceded this legalization.
The rise of factories prompted the emergence of industrial unions, exemplified by the United Mineworkers of America.
The labor movement adopted a new approach to address grievances, with strikes becoming an increasingly important tool.
A united labor movement started to form, represented by organizations such as the Knights of Labor and the Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies).
Industry, Work, and Gender
Shifts in Women's Labor Participation
Women's labor was long established in Canada, particularly in farming and domestic roles.
Significant changes during this period included:
Working-class women moving into wage labor jobs, such as textile workers, telephone operators, and domestic employees.
Middle-class women increasingly dissatisfied with societal changes and seeking opportunities.
The Suffrage Movement and Its Goals
Context and Reasons for Suffrage
Rising poverty and social instability, including strikes and labor unrest, fueled the suffrage movement.
By 1900, nearly the entire adult male population over the age of 21 had the right to vote.
Middle-class women faced limited opportunities, and many people recognized failures in male-dominated economic systems.
Suffragists posited that women's exclusion from political and economic spheres contributed to social ills.
Advocated for the recognition of women's “special role” in society, focusing on social welfare, cooperation, and morality.
Special Role of Women
Moral Guardianship through Voting
Women were seen as guardians of morality; gaining the vote was viewed as pivotal for societal improvement.
Addressing poverty, enhancing public health, and promoting social welfare were highlighted as women's priorities, achievable through voting.
Goals of the Suffragist Movement
Strategies and Achievements
The Canadian suffragist movement developed alongside movements in the U.S. and Britain but was generally less radical, lacking violence or extreme tactics.
The movement had multiple objectives:
Expand educational opportunities for middle-class women, increasing access to universities and colleges.
Break into professional fields, especially medicine, with notable figures like Emily Stowe leading the way.
Secure voting rights for women, who were believed to exert a “civilizing influence” on society.
Women's Suffrage in Canada and Elsewhere
Canadian Context Compared to the UK
Negative Aspects of Suffragism
Limitations in Inclusivity
While suffragism was fundamentally a liberal and egalitarian movement, some leaders among its ranks upheld the prevailing prejudices of their times.
Suffrage often became a movement advocating for the rights of the "right sort of women"—middle-class, educated, and typically of European descent.
Noteworthy exceptions existed, such as Helena Gutteridge in Vancouver, although the movement often adopted conservative stances beyond advocating for women's votes.
Achievements of the Suffrage Movement
Educational and Political Gains
By 1900, women's colleges were established at McGill and Toronto.
A few medical programs opened accessible paths for women.
As of 1919, UBC launched the first degree program in Nursing, and others followed soon after.
The right to vote gradually expanded for women in local elections (library boards and civic elections) by 1900.
National level suffrage for women was fully realized by 1918/21.
Notably, the Northwest Territories was the last region in Canada to grant women the right to vote in 1951.