USA's Involvement in the Cold War

The Cold War (1945-1991)

• Key events and dates:
  • Yalta Conference: February 1945
  • Potsdam Conference: 17th July 1945
  • Truman Doctrine: 12th March 1947
  • Marshall Plan: 5th June 1947
  • Berlin Blockade began: 24th June 1948
  • NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) formed: 4th April 1949
  • Korean War began: 25th June 1950
  • Warsaw Pact formed: 14th May 1955
  • Hungarian Revolution: 23rd October 1956
  • Russia first country to put a human into space: 12th April 1961
  • Bay of Pigs Invasion: 17th April 1961
  • Berlin Wall built: 13th August 1961
  • Cuban Missile Crisis: 14th October 1962
  • First US troops sent to Vietnam: July 1965
  • Neil Armstrong first man on the Moon: 20th July 1969
  • US troops pulled out of Vietnam: 15th August 1973

Containment

• Definition: Stopping the spread of communism.

USA's Response to Soviet Expansionism

• Truman Doctrine (1946):
  • Aimed to combat the "virus of communism".

USA after World War 2

• Initial policy of isolationism.
• Focused on domestic economic well-being.
• Reluctant to get involved in overseas disputes.
• Aimed for self-sustainability.
• Demobilized armed forces significantly (from 12 million to 1.5 million).

USA’s Change in Policy

• The Greek Civil War prompted a change in policy.

  • Greek communists resisted and defeated Nazis.
  • USSR attempted to take over the Greek government.
  • Civil war broke out between communists and Greek monarchists.
  • Greece requested assistance from Britain, who then turned to the USA.

• Events Leading to US Involvement in Greece:

  • 1944: Greek civil war between Nationalists and Communists.
  • Churchill-Stalin agreement (1944): Stalin had control of Romania, Britain had control in Greece.
  • British assisted the Nationalists.
  • Yugoslavia (not Russia) assisted the Communists.
  • Feb 1947: Britain could no longer afford to assist Greece.
  • Truman's speech to Congress.
  • Congress financially assisted Greek Nationalists, paying for British soldiers and weapons (e.g., napalm bombs).
  • 1949: American-backed Nationalists defeated the Communists.
  • Capitalism = 1, Communism = 0.

Turkey

• Post-WW2, Turkey was under threat of a communist takeover with a small, ill-equipped army.
• Stalin proposed a new regime to govern the straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
• The Soviet Union pressured Turkey to allow naval bases on its northwestern coast, granting easy access to the Mediterranean.
• Turkey, backed by the US, Britain, and France, rejected this proposal.
• Truman requested Congress to assist Turkey, linking the freedom of the straits to broader freedom and US interests in the Middle East.
• Millions were sent to Turkey to train and modernize the Turkish army, deterring a Soviet attack.
• This allowed Turkey to focus on restoring its national economy.
• Within 5 years, Turkey became the strongest point in the Middle East with US aid.
• Capitalism = 2, Communism = 0.

Policy of Containment

• The United States adopted containment as a new foreign policy.
• Objective: To stop the spread of communism.
• This policy led to US involvement in:
  • Korean War
  • Vietnam War
  • Conflict in Afghanistan
  • Cuban Missile Crisis

The Iron Curtain

• The Iron Curtain represented the divide during the Cold War.
• Map Depiction:
  • Founding NATO members.
  • Later added NATO members.
  • Warsaw Pact members.
  • Socialist non-aligned countries.
  • Militarily neutral countries.

Russia and Former Soviet Satellite Republics

• Satellite State: A country officially independent but controlled by another country.
• Between 1947-49, the USSR extended its control in Eastern Europe by turning Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Eastern Germany into Satellite States.
• Stalin set up satellite states:
  • As a buffer zone for protection.
  • As a reaction to the Marshall Plan, preventing American influence from spreading.

Iron Curtain, 1946

• February 1946: Stalin's "Bolshoi Speech" attacked capitalist principles.
• The West perceived this as a threat.
• March 1946: Churchill's "Iron Curtain Speech" criticized Soviet expansion and communist policies.
• Churchill stated an "iron curtain" had descended upon Europe, dividing East and West.
• This metaphorical divide separated the free West from the controlled East.
• Stalin viewed this as an attack on the USSR, further straining relationships.

USA’s Change in Policy

• Shift from isolationism to containment to help Greece stop communism.
• President Harry Truman's speech to the American senate: "The Truman Doctrine".
• Truman argued it was the USA’s responsibility to:
  • Support free people.
  • Prevent subjugation under totalitarian regimes.
  • Protect world peace.
• The USA provided aid to Greece and was prepared to do the same for any nation threatened by a communist takeover.

Truman Doctrine, 1947

• Harry Truman's speech stated the USA would provide financial aid to European countries to rebuild after WW2 = Dollar Diplomacy.
• "Dollars before bullets".
• The Truman Doctrine: US foreign policy using financial aid to bolster struggling economies instead of military force.
• The USA aimed to expand its sphere of influence by securing relations with European countries, preventing the spread of communism.
• Shift from “isolationism” to “containment”.

Reasons for Marshall Plan

• European economies were devastated by WW2.
• Economic hardship increased support for communism.
• France and Italy had large communist parties.
• The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Association was inadequate.
• The USA felt the need to intervene and rebuild Europe.

The Marshall Plan

• Senator George Marshall created a program to aid Europe and revive trade after Harry Truman’s speech.

• Any country could apply for Marshall aid, including communist countries, given they supported an honest statement of needs and helped coordinate the recovery plan.

• In return, they had to promise to buy American goods and allow American investment.

• 1947: General George Marshall toured Europe and was shocked by the devastation and extreme winter conditions, which created a breeding ground for communism.

• Marshall called for the US and the Western world to provide aid to Europe to assist in its rebuilding and prevent its collapse to communism.

The United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

• Established on September 18, 1947, when President Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 into law.

Aim of the Marshall Plan

• Rebuild European economies and eliminate conditions that promote communism.
• 16 non-communist countries joined the Marshall Plan.
• The USA provided $17 billion$ through the Marshall Plan.
• Politically, it solidified the division between capitalist Western Europe and communist Eastern Europe.

Marshall Plan, 1948

• Dollar Diplomacy: $15 billion$ in financial aid to postwar Europe.

• Proposed in 1947, passed in 1948.

• Offered to ALL of Europe, but Stalin forbade satellite states from accepting.

• Reasons:

  • Humanitarian: To rebuild Europe and ensure freedom under democracy.
  • Economic: To secure US foreign markets.
  • Ideological: To contain the spread of communism.

• European countries were challenged to create a regeneration plan funded by the US; non-participants would not receive funding.

• By July, a plan requiring $22 billion$ was organized in Paris.

• Truman requested $17 billion$ from Congress; $15 billion$ was granted.

• Stalin rejected the plan, viewing it as a US attempt to undermine Soviet power and influence in Europe, and forbade satellite states from accepting US aid (Dollar Diplomacy).

Outcome of Marshall Plan

• Britain was the main recipient, receiving $3 billion$ in aid.
• France, Italy, West Germany, and the Netherlands received substantial amounts.
• Marshall Aid significantly boosted Europe, leading to massive economic growth between 1948-1952 and preventing the spread of Communism.

Terms of Marshall Aid

• Conditions for acceptance included having free market economies and sourcing raw materials from American suppliers.
• Successes:
  • Ideological victory.
  • Propaganda value.
  • US economy strengthened.
  • Provided economic conditions for democracy to flourish in Europe (e.g., Germany).

Marshall Plan, 1948

• Distribution and spending monitored by the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA).
• Raw materials (e.g., wool), Fuel, Austrian weavers, Consumer Goods, Loans, Advisors, US machinery were provided.

Consequences of Marshall Plan

• The Plan was successful economically and politically.
• Industrial output increased by twice as much as in pre-war Europe.
• Record levels of European trade with America.
• Large scale rebuilding of infrastructure occurred.
• Led to rapid economic recovery of European countries.
• Communism was weakened, preventing takeovers in Western European countries.
• Tensions increased between the USA and Russia.

Communist Dissatisfaction

• Communist leaders believed people were too indoctrinated by imperialist and capitalist ideas to make fair choices.
• Communist states were set up without elections to educate people in communist values.
• People were organized into workers’ councils (soviets) represented at a national level, which was why the communists called their states ‘democratic’.
• Representatives had to come from the country’s communist party.
• Western democracies viewed communist countries as oppressive and called themselves the “Free World”.

How did Russia react?

• Stalin accused the USA of using 'dollar diplomacy'/'dollar imperialism' to extend its support base by making countries dependent on the USA.
• Russia developed its own political and economic plans.
• Stalin forbade Eastern European satellite states from using US help.
• The Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) was set up in 1947 to ensure that communist countries spoke with one voice – that of Moscow.
• Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) was set up in 1948 to provide economic aid from Russia to the satellite states.

The Molotov Plan

• Designed to prevent participation of Eastern European countries in the Marshall Plan and tie their economies closer to the USSR.
• Named after Vyacheslav Molotov (Soviet Foreign Minister).
• Led to the establishment of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 in the Soviet sphere of influence.

Cominform

• Set up by Stalin in 1947 to coordinate the work of communist parties in Eastern Europe.
• Allowed Stalin to watch over and maintain control of the communist governments of countries.
• Used to identify and eliminate non-communist members of government.
• Ensured satellite states remained communist, acting as a buffer between Communist East and Capitalist West.

How did Stalin justify his actions?

• Stalin claimed he was trying to defend Russia from a future attack by establishing buffer states to prevent a German invasion.
• The USSR suffered more losses than any other country during WW2: 22 million Russians died; 1700 towns, 70,000 villages, and 100,000 collective farms were destroyed.
• Stalin wanted reparations to rebuild the USSR.

Military Alliances

• By the 1950s, each side in the Cold War adopted long-term strategies through military alliances to confront threats to their power.
• In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) was formed among members of the Western alliance.
• In 1955, the USSR formed a similar military alliance called the Warsaw Pact with its communist states.

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO)

• The North Atlantic Treaty was a mutual defense treaty to make Allied countries of the West feel stronger in the face of possible communist expansion.
• Fear of German aggression was subsiding in these countries.
• NATO members agreed that an armed attack against any member nation in Europe or North America would be deemed as an attack against them all, and each nation could determine the form of support it would provide.
• The USA was an important member because of the financial support it could provide, and it was ideologically very influential in NATO.
• Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952.
• West Germany joined in 1955.
• Spain joined much later in 1982, while other counties joined after the end of the Cold War

THE WARSAW PACT

• The USSR felt threatened when West Germany was allowed to join NATO in 1955.
• On May 14, 1955, the USSR arranged for its satellite States to sign the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance (the Warsaw Pact).
• The Warsaw Pact was signed by all the USSR's satellite states in Eastern Europe: Eastern Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania (although Albania withdrew in 1968).
• The USSR posted its troops in these countries on a permanent basis under the Warsaw Pact.

Conclusion

• The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan brought Western Europe into America's sphere of influence.
• COMINFORM and COMECON established Soviet control over Eastern Europe.
• The Marshall Plan and COMECON turned these 'spheres of influence' into two official economic alliances, further cementing the division between the two camps.

Truman Doctrine Vs Cominform

• Truman Doctrine:
  • The Idea: Containment
  • The Plan: Marshall Plan
  • Action: Give Money
  • Marshall Aid: Money Given
• Comecon
  • The Idea
  • Creation of Satellite States
  • Action
  • Financial Support & Resources

SPACE RACE and ARMS RACE

• The Space Race and Arms Race were significant aspects of the Cold War.

MUTUALLY ASSURED DESTRUCTION

• One of the major factors in the Cold War was termed Mutual Assured Destruction or MAD.
• This meant that both countries could destroy the other country in the case of attack.
• It wouldn't matter how successful the first strike was, the other side could still retaliate and destroy the country which first attacked.
• For this reason, neither side ever used nuclear weapons because the cost was too high.

The Marshall Plan

• The Truman Doctrine in action.
• The USA enacting the points laid out by Truman during his speech to senate.
• European economic recovery plan.
• Economic part of USA’s policy of containment.

THE USSR AND USA AND THE CREATION OF THE SPHERES OF INTEREST

THE USSR’S SPHERE OF INTEREST

• The USSR feared another invasion by Germany and wanted to create a barrier of countries between the USSR and Germany that was pro-USSR or controlled by the USSR.
• It also wanted to export the philosophy of communism to other countries to help the working class from being exploited by capitalists.
• Soviet demands of reparations denied at Yalta Conference, but Stalin's orders go ahead – mass deconstruction of factories/infrastructure back to USSR & kidnapping of scientists.
• Therefore, despite the agreement reached at Yalta, multi-party elections were not held in Eastern European countries that the USSR had taken from Germany during the war.
• Poland, Romania, East Germany (GDR), Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Albania, and Hungary were considered satellite states of the USSR.
• During 1946–47, Stalin made sure that Communist governments came to power in all the countries of eastern Europe.
• After the partition of Germany, the USSR also installed a communist government in East Germany in 1949.
• The leader of Yugoslavia, President Josip Broz Tito, tried to keep Yugoslavia from being controlled by the USSR.
• Tito rejected Stalin's desire of controlling Yugoslavia and made it clear that he wanted to create a neutral and independent country, which, despite its ideological closeness to the Soviets, would retain its sovereignty
• What followed was the systematic destruction of democracy, by terror, murder, corruption, lies, and propaganda. Secret police detained anyone who opposed communist rule.
• Created COMINFORM AND COMECON in response to US Security Act and Marshal Plan
• Outside of Europe, the USSR’s sphere of interest included Mongolia and North Korea, and, later, North Vietnam, Cuba, and Afghanistan.

THE USA’S SPHERE OF INTEREST

• The USA extended its sphere of influence by adopting a policy of containment which led to the implementation of the Marshall Plan.
• Europe was devastated after the war, but the USA came out of the war as a very wealthy nation.
• The American government feared the spread of communism in the wake of World War II.
• The American government believed that people who were poor and desperate were more likely to turn to communism, while people who were financially stable would embrace capitalism and the opportunities that it offered.
• The USA wanted democratic elections to be held in the countries that needed to be re- organized after World War II.
• It hoped that the people of these countries would establish free-market (capitalist) economies.
• Therefore, the USA could afford to give financial support to countries and Europe in an effort to contain the spread of communism (Truman Doctrine, Marshal Plan, and NATO)
• Greece and Turkey were the first to accept financial support from the USA.
• Reconstruction of German industry in Western Zones through US companies and finance (Contracts given to US companies,)
• Opening of European markets to US imports establishment of influence over German economy.
• Outside of Europe, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and later South Vietnam were also part of the USA’s sphere of interest.

Two historians’ view on the Cold War:

• Source A: US Historian, Arthur Schlesinger, published in 1976: “The Cold War was the brave response of free men to communist aggression. The West was faced at the end of the Second World War with relentless drive for domination by the Soviet Union.”
• Source B: US Historian, M. Leffler, published in 1992: “Stalin preferred to concentrate on his own sphere of influence, Eastern Europe. His most provocative actions were reactions to Western policy in Germany. There is reason to give as much of the responsibility for the Cold War to the USA as the USSR.”

Source A Extract from a letter written by Winston Churchill regarding the Yalta Conference:

• “The news from the discussions in Moscow about the new Polish government is very disappointing. All political parties and social groups in the UK agree that the Soviets taking full control would be a bad thing for Poland. I have spoken in Parliament and defended the decisions of the Yalta conference as we made them in a friendly and positive way at the time. The USSR has tricked us and people have realized; they are very angry. Would this be the same in the USA? I think it would.”