Unit 3

Common Characteristics of Land-Based Empires

All empires were land-based.
Geographical expansion was common among them.
Adoption of gunpowder weapons was the main cause of their expansion.

1. Ottoman Empire

The most significant Islamic empire during the period 1450-1750.
Factors for its rise:
- Strategic control over the Dardanelles, which facilitated expansion campaigns.
- Advancement in gunpowder weaponry, allowing control over much of southwestern Europe and Anatolia; key achievement included the conquering of Constantinople.

2. Safavid Empire

Established in the 16th century under Shah Ismail as a Shia Muslim state.
Notable for bordering two Sunni empires: the Ottoman and Mughal.
Under Shah Abbas, the empire saw significant growth due to gunpowder advancements.

3. Mughal Empire

Emerged in the 16th century, replacing the Delhi Sultanate under Babur.
Expanded further under Babur’s grandson, Akbar:
- Known for religious tolerance.
- Skilled administration led to Mughal becoming the most prosperous empire of the 16th century.

4. Qing Dynasty

Rose after the decline of Mongol rule; the Ming Dynasty (ethnically Han) took southern China.
The Ming experienced decline in the 16th century due to internal and external pressures, paving the way for the Qing, who were northern Manchu.
Qing conquests included parts of Taiwan and Mongolia; Manchu were not ethnically Han.

5. Rivalries Between States

Clashes were primarily driven by religious and political differences.
Examples:
- Safavid/Mughal Conflict: Aimed for expansion into the Persian Gulf; conflicts rooted in the Shi’a vs. Sunni rivalry persisted for decades without a clear victor.
  Legitimizing & Consolidating Power
  - Legitimize: Refers to the methods the ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects WHO is in charge.
  - Consolidate: Measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups and claim it for him or herself.
- Bureaucracies and Militaries
  - Large Imperial Bureaucracies: Bodies of government officials responsible for administering the empire and ensuring the laws are being kept. An example from the Ottoman Empire is the Devshirme System, where Christian boys from Balkan states were enslaved, educated, and trained to staff the imperial bureaucracy.
  - Military Expansion: Creating elite military officials. The Devshirme system in the Ottoman Empire produced elite military officials known as Janissaries.
- Religion, Art, and Architecture
  - Religion: European rulers claimed to rule by divine right of kings. In the Americas, the Aztecs used human sacrifice to legitimize power by employing enslaved people and gathering conquered cities for rituals.
  - Art: In the Qing Dynasty, Kangxi used imperial portraits hung around his city to convince subjects of his legitimacy by portraying himself with traditional Confucian values, erasing his Manchu past.
  - Architecture: The Palace of Versailles, constructed for Louis XIV, communicated the king's legitimacy and consolidated power by compelling the French court to live there part-time. The Inca Sun Temple legitimized rulers by associating them with Sun Gods.
- Financing Imperial Expansion
  - Systems of Taxation:
  - Zamindar system (Mughal Empire): The Muslim Mughals ruled over a predominantly Hindu South Asian population and used local landowners called Zamindars to collect tax on their behalf.
  - Tax farming (Ottoman Empire): The right to tax subjects was sold to the highest bidder, who was then authorized to collect taxes from specific groups of people, often collecting excess for personal profit.
- Legitimize: Refers to the methods the ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects WHO is in charge.
- Consolidate: Measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups and claim it for him or herself.
Bureaucracies and Militaries
- Large Imperial Bureaucracies: Bodies of government officials responsible for administering the empire and ensuring the laws are being kept. An example from the Ottoman Empire is the Devshirme System, where Christian boys from Balkan states were enslaved, educated, and trained to staff the imperial bureaucracy.
- Military Expansion: Creating elite military officials. The Devshirme system in the Ottoman Empire produced elite military officials known as Janissaries.
Religion, Art, and Architecture
- Religion: European rulers claimed to rule by divine right of kings. In the Americas, the Aztecs used human sacrifice to legitimize power by employing enslaved people and gathering conquered cities for rituals.
- Art: In the Qing Dynasty, Kangxi used imperial portraits hung around his city to convince subjects of his legitimacy by portraying himself with traditional Confucian values, erasing his Manchu past.
- Architecture: The Palace of Versailles, constructed for Louis XIV, communicated the king's legitimacy and consolidated power by compelling the French court to live there part-time. The Inca Sun Temple legitimized rulers by associating them with Sun Gods.
Financing Imperial Expansion
- Systems of Taxation:
- Zamindar system (Mughal Empire): The Muslim Mughals ruled over a predominantly Hindu South Asian population and used local landowners called Zamindars to collect tax on their behalf.
- Tax farming (Ottoman Empire): The right to tax subjects was sold to the highest bidder, who was then authorized to collect taxes from specific groups of people, often collecting excess for personal profit.

Belief Systems

Christianity in Europe
- Continuity:
- Christianity had been the primary religion of Europe since the 4th century, holding countries and cultures together while legitimizing power.
- During the Council of Trent, Catholics reaffirmed beliefs such as salvation by faith and works as well as the nature of biblical authority.
- Change:
- The 11th century witnessed a split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church known as the Great Schism of 1054.
- Pope Leo X started selling indulgences and simony (the practice of putting church positions up for sale).
- Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses, denouncing these practices, which initiated the Protestant Reformation due to the influence of the printing press.
- Catholics convened for the Catholic Reformation at the Council of Trent, leading to religious wars in Europe until 1658.
Islam in the Middle East
- The Safavid and Ottoman empires bordered each other, engaging in a series of wars and conflicts over land.
Changes in South Asia
- The Bhakti Movement aimed to bridge the gap between Islam and Hinduism, leading to the rise of Sikhism, which blended the two faiths.
- Sikhism demonstrated continuity by holding onto the core doctrines of both Hinduism and Islam.
- It also indicated change by discarding many distinctions between people, such as the caste system and gender hierarchy.