University Study Notes on Forensic Psychology

INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY

  • Definition of Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychology is a specialized field devoted to the psychological aspects of legal processes in courts. It is frequently used interchangeably with investigative and criminological psychology.
  • The Term "Forensic": Derived from the word meaning "legal," it encompasses anything pertinent to the law.
  • Breadth of Application: Its scope is extensive, involving criminals, legal and civil systems, courts, police, lawyers, crime investigations, criminal behaviors, police recruitment, training, and adjustment.
  • Key Definitions:
    • Wrightsman: Refers to forensic psychology as any application of psychological knowledge or methods to a task faced by the legal system.
    • Bartel & Bartel: View the field as consisting of two main branches:
      1. Research Endeavor: Examining human behavior related to the legal process (e.g., eyewitness memory, jury decision-making).
      2. Professional Practice: Consulting within criminal and civil law systems.
  • Specific Applications:
    • Child custody decisions.
    • Child abuse (emotional, physical, and sexual).
    • Competency to stand trial and competency evaluations.
    • Victim support responsibilities.
    • Jury selection.
    • Alleviating police burnout.
    • Expert witness testimony.
    • Advising legislators on public policy.
    • Treatment of chronic offenders.

THE ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGISTS

  • Core Activities:
    • Applying psychological theory to criminal investigations.
    • Understanding psychological problems associated with criminal behavior.
    • Modifying offender behaviors and implementing treatment programs.
    • Responding to the changing needs of prisoners and staff to reduce stress.
    • Undertaking statistical analysis for prisoner profiling.
    • Advising parole boards and mental health tribunals.
  • Historical Background:
    • The legal system historically embraced medical expertise regarding "madness," using terms like "disease of the mind."
    • Hugo Munsterberg: Generally credited as the founder of applied and forensic psychology; published On the Witness Stand in 19081908.
    • Albert von Schrenck-Notzing: Provided testimony on pretrial publicity in Germany as early as 18961896.
    • J. McKeen Cattell: Conducted the first US experiment on the psychology of testimony.
    • William Healy: Established the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute in 19091909; authored Pathological Lying, Accusation, and Swindling.
    • Daniel M'Naghten: His 18431843 case in England led to the "M'Naghten test" for insanity.
  • Professional Development:
    • APA Division: In 20012001, the American Psychological Association approved Division 4141 (Forensic Psychology).
    • Psychologists vs. Psychiatrists: Only trained psychologists are authorized for specific psychological verdicts. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor specialized in mental disorder diagnosis.
  • Future Trends: Growth is predicted in court work, attorney consultation, and legislative advising. Doctorate degrees (Ph.D.\text{Ph.D.} or Psy.D.\text{Psy.D.}) are essential for specialization.

PROS AND CONS OF A FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY CAREER

  • Rewarding Aspects:
    • Helping Others: Making a tangible difference in lives.
    • Opportunities: Numerous subspecialties available.
    • Environment: Dynamic settings (prisons, juvenile centers).
    • Recognition: Potential for high visibility as an expert witness.
  • Frustrating Aspects/Drawbacks:
    • Continuous Education: Necessity for constant training and seminars.
    • Risk of Injury: Working with violent individuals.
    • Teamwork: Constant requirement to collaborate with police and courts.
    • Pay: Compensation may not match the long hours of hard work.
    • Burnout: High stress due to difficult, unchangeable situations.

PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES AND MURDER CASES

  • Case Example: A man found dead with a bullet wound; no suicide note.
  • The Role of the Psychologist: Acts as a "detective," assessing multiple dimensions of the case.
  • Investigation Strategies:
    • Interviews: Probing family and neighbors (psychologists often elicit more truth than traditional police methods).
    • Personality Assessment: Determining if the decedent had a personality profile prone to suicide.
    • Medical Record Analysis: Checking for prior mental illness.
    • Profiling and Psychological Autopsies: Reconstructing the mental state prior to death.
  • Police vs. Psychologist Investigation:
    • Police methods are often perceived as traditional or intimidating, leading to witness reluctance.
    • Psychologists assume truthfulness in clinical settings but are trained to detect "secondary gain" distortions in forensic settings.

CHILD CUSTODY AND CONFESSION EVALUATIONS

  • Child Custody Challenges:
    • Requires assessing multiple parties (parents, child, stepparents).
    • Standard: "Best interests of the child."
    • High stakes often lead to parental anger or faking good ("virtuous" distortion).
    • Techniques used: Interviews with extended family, projective techniques for children, and factor-based assessments.
  • False Confessions: Occur when a suspect admits guilt for a crime they did not commit.
    • Confession Rules: Established by law to detect and reject false admissions.
    • Typology (Kassin, 1997):
      1. Voluntary: Seek fame, protect others (common in collectivist cultures), or attention-seeking.
      2. Coerced-compliant: Confess to end an interrogation or avoid harsher penalties.
      3. Coerced-internalized: Innocent individuals come to believe they committed the crime due to high suggestibility and pressure.

POLICE PSYCHOLOGY: RECRUITMENT, IQ, AND STRESS

  • Origins: Dr. Martin Reiser was the first full-time US police psychologist (19681968, LAPD).
  • Police IQ Controversy:
    • Louis Terman ($1917$): Tested applicants; only 33 scored over 100100.
    • Louis Thurstone ($1922$): Detroit officers' average score was 71.4471.44 (patrol), 54.7154.71 (sergeants), and 57.8057.80 (lieutenants).
    • Maude Merrill ($1927$): Palo Alto police averaged 104104; those with 2+2+ years experience averaged 143143.
  • Screening Mechanisms:
    • Screening In: Identifying ideal traits (found difficult due to individual differences).
    • Screening Out: Identifying pathology using tests like the MMPI-22 (567567 items) or Inwald Personality Inventory (310310 items).
  • Corruption Predictors: Factors like immaturity and irresponsibility are strong indicators. MMPI correlations include Paranoia (0.340.34) and Problematic Anger (0.390.39).
  • Police Stressors:
    • Internal: Poor supervision, bad equipment, shift work.
    • External: Ineffective justice system, media bias.
    • Burst Stress: Transitioning from calm to high activity instantly.
  • PSTR (Post Shooting Traumatic Response): Symptoms include perceptual distortions of time, flashbacks, and enhanced sense of danger.

INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND PROFILING

  • Profiling Components: Probable age, sex, race, residence, IQ, occupation, marital status, and motivating factors.
  • Approaches:
    1. Clinical/Subjective: Based on experience and "thinking like the criminal."
    2. Empirical/Logical: Based on scientific research and statistical analysis.
  • Historical Examples:
    • Hijacker Profile (19701970s): Described as socially inadequate and unsuccessful in society.
    • Modern Terrorism: No "typical" profile; terrorists are often socially adequate and well-integrated.
  • Crime Scene Typology:
    • Organized: Reflects planning, target selection (stranger), and control; weapon usually removed.
    • Disorganized: Spontaneous, random victim, crime scene in disarray; weapon often present.
    • Mixed: Elements of both; often occurs when a plan is interrupted.
  • Criminal Signature vs. Staging:
    • Trophy Taking: Meaningful souvenir to remember the event or control the victim.
    • Staging: Purposeful alteration of a scene to mislead investigators (e.g., making murder look like suicide for insurance).

PSYCHOLOGICAL AUTOPSY AND DEATH ANALYSIS

  • The Goal: Identifying the mental state of a dead person when the identity is known but the manner of death is unclear.
  • Five Manners of Death: $1$. Natural, $2$. Accident, $3$. Suicide, $4$. Homicide, $5$. Undetermined.
  • Equivocal Death Analysis: Inquiry into deaths open to two or more interpretations. Focuses on mental state, medical history, and social relationship analysis prior to death.

PSYCHOANALYTIC MODEL OF VIOLENCE (FREUD)

  • Structural Model:
    • Id: Pleasure principle; demands immediate gratification.
    • Ego: Reality principle; the mediator between Id and Super-ego.
    • Super-ego: Moral principle; internalized social and parental standards.
  • Instincts:
    • Eros: Life/Creative instinct (linked to theft or sexual crimes).
    • Thanatos: Death instinct; the urge for destruction (linked to murder, torture, and suicide).
  • Psychosexual Fixations and Violence:
    • Oral Stage (0−20-2 years): Fixation leads to narcissism or dependency; "aggressive child in an adult body."
    • Anal Stage (2−52-5 years): Anal-explosive types may involve themselves in disorderly violence/terrorism.
    • Phallic Stage (5−75-7 years): Oedipus/Electra complex resolution issues; linked to identity problems and external manipulation.
  • Defense Mechanisms:
    • Projection: Attributing own flaws to others (can lead to social "jihad").
    • Displacement: Redirecting anger to a weaker target (family/children).
    • Reaction Formation: Behaving opposite to true feelings (hypocrisy-driven violence).

JUNGIAN PSYCHOLOGY AND ARCHETYPES

  • Collective Unconscious: A reservoir of experiences of the human species.
  • Typology:
    • Attitudes: Introversion (inner world focus) vs. Extraversion (outer world focus).
    • Functions: Thinking and Feeling (Judging/Rational) vs. Sensation and Intuition (Perceiving/Irrational).
  • Archetypes and Violence:
    • Shadow: The dark side; triggered during war or when one fails to admit their own evil.
    • The Great Mother: Can be "Devouring" (destructive) to protect her own.
    • The Hero: Engaged in noble violence against the Shadow.
    • The Trickster: Aggressive deceit used to test or hamper the hero.

BEHAVIORIST AND SOCIAL LEARNING MODELS

  • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through association of stimuli (S→RS \to R); extinction occurs when the CS is no longer followed by the UCS.
  • Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Voluntary behavior modified by consequences (Reinforcement vs. Punishment).
    • Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous vs. Intermittent (Fixed Interval, Variable Interval, Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio). Variable Ratio is most effective for maintaining behavior.
  • Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Learning through observation, imitation, and modeling.
    • Four Conditions for Modeling: Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Motivation.
    • Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Learning by observing others' consequences.

HUMANISTIC AND BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS

  • Humanistic Perspective (Rogers): Humans are innately good; violence stems from society blocking an individual's natural growth. Key concepts include Unconditional Positive Regard and Empathy.
  • Moral Development (Piaget): Four stages (Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational). Formal operations are necessary for moral reasoning.
  • Bio-Psychological Model: Focuses on genetic predisposition. Identifies traits like Low Constraint (impulsivity) and Negative Emotionality as conducive to crime.
  • Adler's Model: Highlights the "Will to Power" and compensation for "Inferiority Complexes." Views rape as an expression of power rather than sex.
  • Foucault's Model: Schools and prisons are similar institutions that enforce compliance and punish difference.
  • Bio-Psycho-Social Integrated View: Advocates for Proportionate Punishment. Suggests separating hardened criminals from first-time offenders to prevent jails from becoming "factories of crime."