Lifespan Development

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

  • Lifespan development studies how individuals change and remain stable throughout their lives.

    • Modification of Giles Cook's work.

WHAT IS LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT?

  • Developmental psychologists examine lifelong development across three main domains:

    1. Physical Development

    • Growth and changes in the body and brain, including motor skills and health.

    1. Cognitive Development

    • Involves learning, attention, language, reasoning, and creativity.

    1. Psychosocial Development

    • Pertains to emotions, personality, and social relationships.

  • Normative Approach:

    • Seeks to define what constitutes "normal" development by examining average ages for developmental milestones (e.g., crawling, walking, puberty).

    • Biological Milestones: Universal, such as onset of puberty.

    • Social Milestones: Vary culturally, such as starting school.

CONTINUOUS VS. DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT

  • Developmental psychologists hold differing views on the process of development:

    • Continuous Development

    • Sees development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing abilities (e.g., height increase).

    • Discontinuous Development

    • Views development as occurring in distinct stages at specific ages.

IS THERE ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY?

  • Questions whether development is universal or influenced by genetics and environment:

    • Stage Theories: Propose that development is a universal process.

    • Evidence: Children globally reach language milestones similarly.

    • Individual Courses: Cultural variations affect the pace and style of development.

    • Example: Regardless of location, children engage in play, showcasing universal behaviors despite cultural differences.

NATURE VS. NURTURE

  • Nature: Refers to biological and genetic factors.

  • Nurture: Includes environmental and cultural influences.

  • The debate revolves around how traits and personalities arise from genetics or environmental factors:

    • Investigative questions:

    1. Why do siblings differ?

    2. Are adopted children more like their biological or adoptive parents?

    3. Is intelligence determined by inheritance, experience, or a mix?

  • Insights gained from twin and adoption studies demonstrate that both factors contribute to development, with ongoing debates on their impact.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

  • Major theories include:

    1. Psychosexual Theory (Freud)

    2. Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

    3. Cognitive Theory (Piaget)

    4. Theory of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY (FREUD)

  • Proposed by Sigmund Freud:

    • Believed childhood experiences heavily influence adult personality and behavior.

    • Considered development discontinuous, having distinct stages.

    • Established five stages of psychosexual development, emphasizing fixation without proper nurturing:

    1. Oral

    2. Anal

    3. Phallic

    4. Latency

    5. Genital

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (ERIKSON)

  • Developed by Erik Erikson:

    • Emphasizes the social aspect of development throughout life, not limited to childhood.

    • Advocates that personality develops through social interactions, forming an ego identity.

    • Identifies eight stages, each with a psychosocial task to master for a sense of competence:

    1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 years)

    2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 years)

    3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)

    4. Industry vs. Inferiority (7-11 years)

    5. Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 years)

    6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-29 years)

    7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-64 years)

    8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years)

COGNITIVE THEORY (PIAGET)

  • Proposed by Jean Piaget:

    • Concentrated on children's cognitive development, positing that it progresses through distinct stages.

    • Suggested that children create schemata to categorize new information.

    • Proposed two processes of cognitive adaptation:

    • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemata.

    • Accommodation: Adjusting schemata in response to new information.

  • Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:

    1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Interaction through senses; key concept of object permanence and stranger anxiety.

    2. Preoperational (2-6 years): Representing concepts with words/images but lacking logical reasoning; characterized by egocentrism and pretend play.

    3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking concerning concrete information, understanding conservation and mathematical transformations.

    4. Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract reasoning and moral comprehension developed.

THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (KOHLBERG)

  • Lawrence Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning, which reflect the growth of ethical decision-making:

    1. Pre-conventional: Focused on obedience/punishment and self-interest.

    2. Conventional: Social approval and the law become essential to moral reasoning.

    3. Post-conventional: Based on social contracts and universal ethical principles.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Development is categorized into three stages:

    1. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2)

    • Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg, creating a zygote.

    • Mitosis begins, leading to multiple cell divisions.

    1. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8)

    • After 150 cell divisions, it transforms into an embryo, with early organ functions starting (e.g., heartbeats).

    • Formation of critical structures.

    • The Placenta connects the fetus to the mother, providing essential nutrients and oxygen.

    1. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-40)

    • Significant brain development and physical growth occur until birth.

PRENATAL INFLUENCES

  • Prenatal care is essential to monitor the health of mother and fetus.

  • Teratogens: Any environmental factor that can harm the developing embryo or fetus, including:

    • Alcohol: Leads to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), causing physical and cognitive impairments.

    • Smoking: Linked to premature birth, low birth weight, and higher risks of SIDS.

    • Various drugs and chemicals (e.g., heroin, cocaine, radiation).

NEWBORNS

  • Newborns exhibit automatic reflexes essential for survival. Key reflexes include:

    • Rooting Reflex: Tendency to turn toward stimuli on the cheek.

    • Sucking Reflex: Sucking on objects placed in the mouth.

    • Grasping Reflex: Grabbing objects placed in hand.

    • Moro Reflex: Startle response by spreading arms.

  • Sensory abilities are not fully developed at birth; preference for voices and scents related to their mother is observed.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Growth occurs rapidly during infancy, slowing around ages 4-6.

    • Growth Spurt: Occurs in girls around ages 8-9 and varies by sex.

  • Nervous System Development:

    • Blooming Period: Formation of new neural connections.

    • Pruning Period: Reduction of connections to enhance brain efficiency.

    • Brain reaches 55% of adult size at age 2, and 90% by age 6.

  • Motor Skills Development: Sequential development of fine and gross motor skills.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

  • Revised views suggest Piaget’s stages may not fully encompass early understanding in children.

  • Baillargeon’s Study: Demonstrated infants can understand object permanence and basic physics earlier than Piaget claimed.

  • Cognitive milestones by age:

    • 6-9 months: Physical gestures like shaking “no.”

    • 9-12 months: Responding to verbal requests.

    • Toddlers: Understanding of object permanence improves.

    • 3-5 years: Learning counting, color naming, and imaginative play.

    • 6-11 years: Enhancements in logical thinking and improvement of attention span by age 11.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ATTACHMENT

  • Initiating social interactions fosters the mother-infant bond.

  • Attachment: A long-lasting emotional connection.

    • Forming healthy attachments is critical during infancy, investigated by key theorists (Harlow, Bowlby, Ainsworth).

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ATTACHMENT (HARLOW)

  • Conducted experiments with monkeys:

    • Presented two surrogate mothers: one wire (food) and one cloth (comfort).

    • Monkeys preferred the cloth mother, indicating the importance of comfort in attachments.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ATTACHMENT (BOWLBY)

  • Proposed Attachment Theory highlighting:

    • The need for infants to bond with primary caregivers for healthy social development.

    • Secure Base: Caregivers provide safety for exploration.

    • Requirements for healthy attachment:

    1. Responsiveness to child's needs.

    2. Engaging in enjoyable interactions.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ATTACHMENT (AINSWORTH)

  • Used the Strange Situation to identify attachment styles:

    1. Secure: Child uses parent as a safe base; distressed at separation and joyful upon return.

    2. Avoidant: Unresponsive to parent; doesn't seek proximity.

    3. Resistant: Clingy yet rejecting behavior.

    4. Disorganized: Bizarre behaviors; often linked to abuse.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: SELF-CONCEPT

  • Development of self-concept (self-awareness) is key during childhood.

    • Positive self-concept contributes to confidence, independence, and better academic performance.

    • Children recognize themselves in mirrors and photos by certain ages (18 months; 24 months respectively).

  • Social Behavior: Increases with self-concept development.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: PARENTING STYLES

  • Parenting styles significantly influence self-concept development.

  • Baumrind's Parenting Styles:

    1. Authoritative: Balances demands with responsiveness.

    2. Authoritarian: Rigid and unresponsive; emphasizes conformity.

    3. Permissive: Lenient; minimal discipline.

    4. Uninvolved: Indifferent and neglectful.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: TEMPERAMENT

  • Temperament: Innate emotional traits affecting interactions.

    • Easy Temperament: Positive, adaptable, emotionally regulated.

    • Difficult Temperament: Negative, inflexible, emotionally unstable.

ADOLESCENCE

  • Development is heavily influenced by peers.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Puberty: Marks significant biological changes including:

    • Adrenarche: Maturing of adrenal glands.

    • Gonadarche: Development of sex glands; appearance of secondary sexual characteristics.

    • Menarche: Start of menstruation (~12-13 years).

    • Spermarche: First ejaculation (~13-14 years).

    • Both sexes have growth spurts, reaching adult height at different ages (girls 16; boys 17).

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT (BRAIN)

  • Brain growth persists into early adulthood, with critical development of the frontal lobes affecting judgment and impulse control, hence influencing risky behaviors.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

  • Teenage reasoning evolves towards logical and hypothetical problem-solving.

    • Cognitive empathy emerges, enhancing social relationships and conflict resolution.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Adolescents refine self-identity while relating to peers.

    • Identity exploration can align or clash with parental values.

    • Relationships with peers become pivotal.

    • Erikson's stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion is explored during this time, characterized by experimentation.

    • Positive parent-child relationships linked to academic success and behavioral adjustment.

EMERGING ADULTHOOD

  • Emerges as a new stage of development from 18 to mid-20s.

    • Identity exploration aims at relationships and careers.

    • Cultural factors extend the time for achieving adulthood.

ADULTHOOD: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Early Adulthood (20s-40s): Peak physical performance.

  • Middle Adulthood (40s-60s): Gradual physical decline; includes changes in skin, vision, and weight.

  • Late Adulthood (60+): Further declines in senses and motor skills; exercise and nutrition can mitigate some aging effects.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

  • Cognitive abilities remain stable, with crystallized intelligence stable or improving.

  • Fluid intelligence: Declines with aging; stimulating cognitive activities can help maintain mental fitness.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Meaningful occupations and relationships become increasingly significant.

  • Well-Being Factors in Employment:

    • Engaging work, independence, social interaction opportunities enhance job satisfaction.

  • Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: Suggests that while social circles may diminish in later years, the quality and closeness of those relationships improve.

DEATH AND DYING

  • Cultural beliefs shape perceptions of death and mourning practices.

  • Kubler-Ross's 5 Stages of Grief:

    1. Denial

    2. Anger

    3. Bargaining

    4. Depression

    5. Acceptance

DEATH AND DYING (CULTURAL PRACTICES)

  • Different cultures and religions have unique rituals and practices surrounding death.

  • Examples of burial and cremation practices across various cultures are highlighted.