IB History_ Paper 1 - The Move To Global War (Japanese, Italian and German Expansion)
Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931–1941)
Causes of Expansion
Background:
Japan was largely isolated until the mid-19th century.
Political power was led by the Emperor but exerted by the aristocracy of daimyo (feudal lords) and samurai (feudal warriors).
By the 19th century, Japan was not industrialized and vulnerable to Western powers, as was the case with China.
1853: Commodore Perry arrived with US warships demanding Japan open for trade, leading to the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
The treaty was unpopular and led to the decline of shoguns and the restoration of Imperial power.
Meiji Restoration (1868): Power restored to Emperor Meiji, who oversaw rapid modernization, abolishing the shogun office and dismantling the feudal system, with reforms in military, education, and industry.
Impact of Japanese Nationalism and Militarism on Foreign Policy
Japanese foreign policy aimed for:
Equality with the West.
Leadership in Asia.
Enthusiasm for militarization and expansionism, supported by the ruling elite due to Japan’s increasing population.
Need for raw materials and markets due to limited resources.
Need for strategic security due to geographical position.
Impact of Nationalism
“Oitsuke, oikose” (“catch up, overtake’) – popular slogan summarizing expansionist ambitions.
Meiji Restoration (1867 – 1912): Rapid modernization with heavy investment in the military and social ‘Westernization’.
The Meiji Constitution (1889): The first legal document modeled after the Prussian constitution.
Established the Emperor as head of state and divine individual, backed by Shintoism.
Created a parliament (Diet) divided into the elected House of Representatives and the appointed House of Peers.
Granted tremendous power to the military, which held two cabinet positions and reported directly to the Emperor.
Education and loyalty to the state:
Compulsory education aimed to teach practical and problem-solving skills and increase literacy.
The Ministry of Education embedded nationalistic values into reading materials.
1890: Issue of the Imperial Rescript on Education, encouraging obedience to the state and emphasizing Confucian and Shinto values.
Teaching of military drills.
Textbooks fostered radical nationalism.
The Tripartite Intervention (1895): Russia, France, and Germany pressured Japan to renounce territories granted in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, fueling nationalist sentiment.
Yamagata- Lobanov Protocol (1896): Japan forced to give up the Liaodong peninsula and agreed to share control of Korea with Russia.
Impact of Militarism
“Rich country, strong military” – popular slogan synthesizing militarism within policies and society.
First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895):
Japan wanted a share in the scramble for China and needed resources.
In 1876, Japan forced Korea to grant trade privileges.
Japan defeated China, demonstrating military and industrial progress since the 1860s.
Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 1895): Japan gained Formosa (Taiwan) and the Liaodong Peninsula.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902):
The first treaty between a Western and a non-Western country.
Britain sought an alliance after Japan’s victory over China.
Both countries agreed to help each other if one was at war or remain neutral.
Signaled Japan’s growing status and diplomatic isolation.
Other Factors
World War I:
Japan expanded its influence in Asia, taking over German colonies.
Twenty-One Demands issued to China.
Japan secured German Pacific islands and economic privileges in Shandong at the Versailles conference.
Japan supplied goods to the Allies and Asian markets, becoming more self-sufficient and developing industries.
Japanese Domestic Issues
1920s: Shift to internationalism.
Political Issues:
Fragile democracy with a lack of freedom of expression.
Political parties lacked public support due to election law violations and scandals.
Opposition to internationalism from conservative groups.
Economic Issues:
Economic boom ended in 1921.
Divide between rural and urban areas, small businesses and conglomerates (zaibatsu).
Agricultural produce prices fell between 1926 and 1931.
Divide fueled nationalism in rural areas.
1927: Severe financial crisis with 25% of banks collapsing.
The Great Depression (1929): Accelerated economic collapse.
1930s: Increasingly Expansionist Foreign Policy
Political Issues:
Rise of authoritarianism.
Growth of militarism, motivated by economic collapse.
Invasion of Manchuria feasible due to control of Korea and the Liaodong Peninsula.
Economic Issues:
Impact of the Great Depression shifted foreign policy and ignited authoritarian politics.
Unemployment reached 2.6 million in 1930.
1929 - 1931: Exports fell by 50%.
1932: Price of silk fell by 20%.
Impact on Foreign Relations
1920s: Cooperation and internationalism.
Washington Naval Treaty (1922) limited Japan's naval power.
Active member of the League of Nations.
1930s: Growing expansionist ambitions.
The Great Depression (1929) shifted perception of the Western world.
Mistrust of the Western-style government.
Lack of willingness to cooperate in the international sphere.
Political Instability in China
Background: China was weak in the 19th century due to military defeats and foreign exploitation.
China became a semi-colonial state after the Opium Wars (1839–42, 1856–60).
1911: Establishment of a republic, but regional warlords controlled different areas (Warlord Era 1916–27).
1926–1927: The Guomindang Nationalist Party (GMD) launched the Northern Expedition, led by Chiang Kai-shek.
1927: Establishment of a new Nationalist government in Nanjing.
Role in Encouraging Japanese Nationalism
Desire to transform into a ‘first-class country’ and acquire colonies.
Economic gain through access to raw materials and markets.
Fear of losing political influence to Western powers in Korea and China.
Political Situations Benefiting Japan
Warlords prevented national unity.
Rivalry between the Guomindang Nationalist Party (GMD) and the Communist Party of China (CCP).
Zhang Xueliang’s inability to eliminate foreign influence.
1929: Soviet army attacks after Zhang seizes assets on Manchuria, with no intervention from Chiang Kai-shek or the international community.
Japanese Invasion of Manchuria and Northern China (1931)
Reasons
Political instability in China.
Japan controlled Port Arthur, Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905).
Fear that Chiang Kai-shek and/or Zhang Xueliang would drive out Japanese assets.
Long-standing interest in Manchuria due to mineral-rich land.
Economic collapse and the opportunity to provide living space for an overpopulated Japan.
Events
The Mukden Incident (September 1931)
September 1931: The Kwantung Army staged the blowing up of a part of the South Manchurian Railway and blamed the incident on the Chinese.
Lieutenant-Colonel Ishiwara Kanji led the region takeover, despite the government’s opposition.
Prime Minister Wakatsuki Reijiro resigns after he fails to control the army. His successor, Inukai Tsuyoshi, was assassinated in 1932 when he tried to control the army in Manchuria.
November 1931: The Kwantung Army takes most of Manchuria. Chiang Kai-shek’s troops retreat south.
The Shanghai Incident (January 1932)
January 1932: A series of fights breaks out between Chinese troops and Japanese marines, who were protecting their citizens and assets.
Japanese forces briefly launched aerial bombings to Shanghai.
May 1932: Japanese withdraws and agrees to a truce with Chinese authorities.
May 1933: Treaty of Tanggu: The Chinese Nationalist government formally accepts Japanese control of Manchuria.
Outcomes
Establishment of Manchukuo (February 1932)
Proclamation of a new independent state.
Pu Yi crowned as a puppet leader.
Heavy taxation in Japan to maintain the army and protect against the US or Soviet troops.
Growing power of the military.
Public support for military actions in Manchuria.
Deterioration of diplomatic relationships between the US and Britain.
Japan withdrew from the League of Nations.
Reverted Japan’s foreign policy to isolationism.
Shifting alliances – Japan viewed Germany as a potential ally and the USSR as a potential enemy.
Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1936): Signed between Japan and Germany.
Chinese citizens boycott Japanese products, reducing sales by two-thirds.
Chinese government’s lack of action enabled Japanese expansion.
Sino-Japanese War (1937—1941)
Reasons
Domestic issues (growing power of military)
The military gained more power and public support after the invasion of Manchuria. This in turn, threatened government control.
Series of assassinations to politicians and ministers who attempt to subdue military power such as :
15 May Incident (1932): assassination of Prime Minister Inukai.
February 26 Incident (1936): attempted military coup which was stopped by troops who were loyal to the government.
Growth of ultra-nationalism - as a result of the Cardinal Principles of the Nation, published in March 1937 by the Ministry of Education which stated the Emperor was divine and praised ideas of sacrifice for the nation.
Japanese expansionism
Tanggu Truce (May 1933): Chiang Kai-shek signs a treaty after successful Japanese Jehol offensive. The truce highlighted China’s military inferiority and lack of resources for a new conflict, as the government was fighting communists.
The Takeover of Inner Mongolia (1937) - the weak response motivated further expansion.
The Amau Declaration (April 1934) - the Japanese government announced its intention to rule China as a protectorate. In December, it announced its intention to increase its naval capacity once the Washington Naval Treaty expired in 1936. This demonstrated Japan’s intention to fulfill its role as the guardian of Asia by abandoning international cooperation and diplomacy.
Events
Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 1937): Chinese and Japanese forces exchange fire outside of Beijing.
The Nanjing Massacre (December 1937): Mass civilian killed by Japanese forces.
October 1938: Wuhan fell.
Japanese forces occupied a vast area of northern and eastern China.
September 1939: GMD forces stop Japanese forces who attempted to cross the Yangtze river.
March 1940: Japanese forces attempt to stop Chinese resistance by setting up a puppet state governed by Wang Jingwei and launching the ‘Three-All Campaign’ terror campaign.
Outcomes
Japanese troops destined to fight US and Britain
Operation Ichigo (April - December 1944): offensive against Chinese Nationalist and US bomber bases.
The GMD suffered high casualties (500,000) and economic loss, with 25% of their factories destroyed.
1945: Japanese forces withdrew from southern China to concentrate defense efforts in Manchuria after Soviet troops occupied the region in August 1945.
The Three Power/Tripartite Pact; the Outbreak of War; Pearl Harbor (1941)
The Three Power/Tripartite Pact (September 1940)
Reasons
1938 - 1939: Defeat at the Manchurian/Mongolian border: heavy losses at the hand of Soviet forces discouraged Japan from attacking the USSR, thus, shifted their interests into the South.
1940: New Order in East Asia: Prince Konoe announced intention to create a new order. Closer ties with Axis powers, non-aggression to the USSR and attention to US-European Pacific possessions would make this possible.
Events
September 1940: Italy, Germany and Japan agree to politically, economically and militarily assist each other if one is attacked by another country. It also recognises each other's spheres of influence, meaning Germany renounced its claims of its former Pacific possessions, now governed by Japan.
Outcomes
Strained relationship between Japan and Germany - given the end of the Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939).
Japan announced the creation of the Great East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, which would provide economic support amongst countries in East Asia.
1941: Japan expands to Southern Asia - motivated by Nazi- intercepted British documents which stated lack of preparedness to defend Southern possessions.
Pearl Harbor (December 1941)
Reasons
July 1941: US imposes an oil embargo
Japan decided to eliminate the American Pacific fleet in order to buy time and allow a takeover of Pacific possessions.
Likewise, they hoped this would prevent a large-scale conflict and that the US would choose to negotiate.
Japanese officials calculated that American rearmament would make their naval strength equal 30% of the US’s by 1944.
Responses
League of Nations and the Lytton Report
The League of Nations' response was slow and delayed given;
China’s instability - Chinese government control on Manchuria was limited after the 1911 Revolution.
Japanese presence in the area since 1905
European powers unsympathetic of Chiang Kai-shek, who wanted to end foreign concession in China
Lack of international cooperation - most countries were preoccupied with domestic economic issues.
There was no US support.
It will prompt a response from Japan, who would most likely seize British and French colonies in Asia.
The League ended up issuing a Council resolution calling Japan to withdraw its forces from the area of the South Manchuria Railway.
October 1931: Japan vetoes the resolution through Article 11, which China used to appeal to the League and allowed Council members to veto Council resolutions in which they were involved.
December 1931: The League sets up the Lytton Commission to investigate the incident. The commission spent April - June 1932 in Manchuria.
October 1932: Lytton Report published
Document concluded that Manchuria should remain an independent state under Chinese sovereignty. It also commanded Japan to withdraw forces and concluded that Sino-Japanese relations improvement would solve the invasion.
The report was ineffective given;
The commission took almost a year to produce the report. By this time, the situations had shifted
The commission did not take in consideration Japan’s unwillingness to compromise
Outcomes
1933: Japan withdraws from the League of Nations after the League decides to uphold the Lytton Report.
The lack of strong actions against invasion motivated Mussolini’s future invasion of Abyssinia (1935).
Political Developments within China—the Second United Front
August 1937: Chiang Kai-shek sets up the Second United Front, halting the civil war with the communists and providing harsher actions against the Japanese offensive.
The alliance demanded the CCP to end their land redistribution campaign and agree to be commanded by Chiang Kai-shek.
In return, the GMD pledged to cease attacks on CCP and agreed to allow multiple political parties.
Failure of the Second United Front
The union lasted until 1945 and proved to be ineffective due to;
Lack of cooperation in resistance tactics
The GMD broke agreements - it did not set up a multi-party democratic system and blockaded Communist Base Area to prevent the spread of the ideology.
January 1941: GMD attacked the Communist New Fourth Army resulting in 10,000 casualties.
GMD’s Response: Marco Polo Bridge Incident
Chiang Kai-shek sent troops to help warlords in the area in hopes of encouraging foreign powers (such as the US or USSR) to enter the conflict.
However, his response proved to be disastrous - the Japanese responded by sending 15 military divisions to their forces in China and swiftly conquered different areas.
Communist Party (CCP) Response: Japanese actions
CCP forces controlled the north of China, given the lack of GMD forces and the fact Japan started attacking from the south.
Engaging in guerrilla war, to prevent a large-scale conflict with a superior invader.
Hundred Regiments Offensive (1940): the only large-scale offensive against the Japanese, which failed and provoked brutal reprisals.
The use of the guerrilla tactics, despite heavy losses (100,000 casualties between 1941-43), helped build a heroic reputation and spread Communism, especially in the countryside.
International Response
US initiatives
1937: US Secretary of State Stimson, proposes economic sanctions following Japan’s invasion of China.
1938: The US halts its policy of isolationism after a series of Japanese announcements warning of a ‘new order’ in Asia. This alarmed the American government who had economic interests in the region.
Increasing tensions between the US and Japan
July 1940: Congress passes the Two-Ocean Naval Expansion Act, encouraging naval construction and rearmament, demonstrating its intention to intervene militarily.
September 1940: President Roosevelt embargoed metal and aviation fuel exports to Japan, highlighting its intention to take tougher action.
January 1941: US-Japan relations deteriorated following American economic sanctions, banning trade of raw materials and metal. Japan attempted to achieve self-sufficiency and be less dependent on exports through the failed Miyazaki Plan (August 1936).
July 1941: The US embargoes all fuel exports to Japan after the Japanese invasion to southern Indo-China. Japan was severely affected as it only had a two-year oil supply.
German and Italian Expansion (1933 - 1940)
Italian Expansion
Background
Italy was not a unified country until 1861 - the country was divided into kingdoms which had changed leadership.
Liberal Italy (1870-1923), the previous government, faced a number of long-term weaknesses
Economic problems
Economic inequality - southern states were poorer since they relied on agriculture, while northern states were industrialized.
Politics were dominated by richer northern states - for instance, laws and political systems from Piedmont were imposed on other states.
General strike (1914) halts production.
Political problems
Intervention in WWI made Italy a politically divided country - 5 million war veterans resented the Liberal government’s treatment and were also politicized, demanding anti-war policies
Until 1930 only elite men over 30 could vote.
Influential movements such as the Nationalists (est. 1910) and the Futurists (est. 1910) believed unification was incomplete since regions of Trentino and Trieste were under Austrian control.
Likewise Italy’s destiny was to be a great power which boasted an empire comparable to the British or French.
The Futurists criticized the Liberal government’s inefficient policies which failed to transform Italy into a ‘great power’ .
Social problems
Regionalism - lack of national identity and loyalty to hometowns or home states.
Religious division - the Vatican had urged Catholics to abstain from voting until 1914.
Growing peasant and working-class unrest - given politics were dominated by elites which had policies which only served their needs and those of the upper and middle class.
Unrest led to General strike in 1914.
Impact of Fascism on the Foreign Policies of Italy
Mussolini’s foreign policies
Mussolini assumed power without a clear outline of foreign policies, as opposed to Hitler, who outlined his in Mein Kampf.
Some of Mussolini’s early foreign policies were similar to those of the Liberal government such as those relating to expanding Italy’s influence in the Balkans, Near East and East Africa.
In the early 1920s, the Italian government was concerned and devoted military resources to suppressing uprising in Libya. By 1925, Italian foreign policy was clearly outlined and presented the following goals:
Increase national pride
Consolidate domestic support for the regime
Revise the post-war settlement of 1919-20
Dominate the Balkans
Dominate the Mediterranean
Gaining ‘spazio vitale’ (living space) by building an empire
Spreading fascist ideology to other countries.
Influence of Fascist ideology
During the 1920s, Mussolini exhibited a preference for aggression and confrontation
Corfu Crisis (1923) - Military occupation after Greek bandits allegedly murdered an Italian general.
Undermined French influence in the Mediterranean - Mussolini supported opposition movements in Morocco and Tunisia, French colonies as well as fund Croatian separatists who sought independence from Yugoslavia, a French ally which had incorporated Italian territory after WWI.
Albania (1926) - turned the country to a client state by helping Ahmet Zog (future King Zog of Albania in 1928) seize power.
Other factors influencing Italian foreign policy
Disagreement with Versailles treaty (post-war settlement) - Mussolini aimed to increase national pride and make Italy a stronger contender in international politics
Need for domestic support - Mussolini needed to consolidate his image as well as attend economic needs, through expansion and establishment of an empire which meant resources and living space for Italians.
Changing international situation - Britain and France distracted by internal affairs as well as German and Japanese expansion. This allowed an opportunity for unsupervised Italian expansion.
Impact of domestic economic issues on the foreign policies of Italy
Most of Italy’s policies aimed to make the country self-sufficient (otherwise known as ‘autarky’).
Mussolini envisioned Italy as an ‘corporate state’, a system which would mix capitalist and socialist practices. The system would regulate the economy, be based on a system of corporations and serve national interest in order to cease political problems.
To achieve this, Mussolini launched initiatives such as;
The Battle for Grain (1925)
Increase crop (namely grain) production and decrease dependency on imports.
This was achieved to some extent - grain production increased and imports fell by 75%, however, it was achieved at the cost of forcing wheat crops in non- suitable areas, such as the south which sacrificed olive production.
The Battle for the Lira (1926)
An economic policy which sought to increase the value of Italian currency and fight inflation.
The regime adjusted the value of the lira from 154 to 90 lira in relation to the British pound.
As a result exports fell and those acquiring imported goods had to pay high tariffs. Likewise, workers had to endure a wage cut by 10% in 1927. However, it benefitted industries which relied on imports such as the heavy (e.g. steel and chemicals) industries. This advantage was key in rearming Italy.
Impact of Great Depression
Unemployment rose to 2 million in 1933 and workers had to face payment cuts in 1930 and 1934.
Italy invaded Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) in 1935-1936 promising living space and as an attempt to revive domestic support.
Subsequently this led to Italy’s withdraw from the League of Nations
Furthermore, it severed diplomatic ties with Britain and France and aligned closer to Nazi Germany by joining the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937) and signing the Pact of Steel (1939), a military alliance between both countries.
Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe
By 1934 Italy’s domestic actions were significant for international politics. For instance, Mussolini’s support for Austrian independence opposed Hitler’s Anschluss.
German rearmament in 1935 preoccupied Western powers, who viewed Italy as a partner in ‘guaranteeing status quo’ in Europe.
Fear of German expansion and rearmament led Italy to align with Great Powers like Britain and France in the first half of the 1930s through the establishment of The Stresa Front (1935)
An agreement signed by Britain, France and Italy, which aimed to prevent countries from breaking the Versailles treaty and called for joint action of the signatories if this happened.
However, the agreement was weak - lacked outlines to achieve goals and failed to mention particular countries (e.g. Germany)
Moreover, all signatories had opposing views on how to deal with German expansion. England, for instance, did not adopt a clear stance and avoided confrontation, leading to the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in June 1935.
Furthermore, Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia (1935-36) ended severing diplomatic relations with Britain and France.
This set of fallouts and new alignments enabled Italy to move closer to Nazi Germany and facilitated Mussolini expansionist policies.
Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) A friendship agreement between Mussolini and Hitler.
German Expansion
Background
Germany severely affected after World War I
The Weimar Republic (1919 - 1933) experienced a short-lived period of economic boom known as the ‘Golden Years (1924 - 1929) and was a relatively politically stable country. However, by the 1930s, it faced various weaknesses;
Economic problems
Hyperinflation (1923) - led many Germans to believe the government had no control of the economy as well as created distrust.
High dependence on US loans - suggested a lack of plan to rebuild the economy. Likewise, American loans were paid with money destined to pay reparation expenses and debts.
Unemployment reached 6 million by the 1930s.
Disruption of industries - Germany was forced to hand over territories with high raw materials in the Treaty of Versailles, which could have been extracted to both recover the economy and pay reparations.
Political problems
Lack of consensus - disproportional representation of political parties in the Reichstag.
Creation of radical groups (right-wing, communist, nationalist) as a response to perceived government failures
Political instability - due to the constant changes of political parties and chancellors. Furthermore, Article 48, which allowed the President to issue emergency measures without the consent of the Reichstag, was widely used.
Social problems
Anxiety and hopelessness - most people suffered aftermaths of war as well as economic hardships
Sense of humiliation after Versailles
Impact of Nazism on the Foreign Policies of Germany
Hitler’s foreign policies
Unlike Mussolini, when Hitler came to power, he had a clear set of policies first exhibited in Mein Kampf. Most of Hitler’s policies were based on the idea of a superior race and to a lesser extent, avenging the clauses on the Treaty of Versailles.
Some of the most important policies were;
A “Gross Deutschland” - the idea of unifying with Austrian-Germans and German minorities such as those in Czechoslovakia and Poland.
Race and living space (‘Lebensraum’) - supported the creation of a Greater Germany inhabited purely by superior Aryans which needed to expand Eastwards as far as the Ural mountains. In order to achieve this, expel ‘inferior’ races such as Russians, Poles and Jews.
Natural enemies and allies - Hitler considered Russia an enemy nation given its high Jewish population and communist government and France, due their role in drafting the Treaty of Versailles. Alternatively, Britain was considered a potential ally because of their empire, opposition to French occupation of the Ruhr (1923) and their ‘racial similarity’
Influence of Fascist ideology
Hitler’s foreign policies exhibited clear links to fascist ideas such as;
Social Unity: the promotion of a collective national society, which was to be achieved with the unification of German-majority territories (A ‘Gross Deutschland’)
Social Darwinism: fascist ideology accepts hierarchy and argues that some races have evolved to be the fittest, therefore supports the view some races are inferior.
Nationalism: exhibited in two of his policies
Gross Deutschland: foster nationalism by joining with populations with similar culture and history.
Natural enemies: promoting an identity through division and isolation. Minorities were perceived as ‘foreign’ therefore needed to be expelled and promote hatred to other nations.
Moreover, to achieve all policies German had to flatly breach the Treaty of Versailles, especially the clauses that barred reunification and rearmament.
Other factors influencing German foreign policy
Treaty of Versailles
The restrictive conditions fuelled a strong nationalist movement. Some of these included Germany was not allowed to join the newly formed League of Nations.
Loss of territories - Lands in eastern Germany which were rich farlands given to Poland, colonies given to France and Britain.
Restriction in militarisation - Germany not allowed to have an air force, army limited to 100,000 men and navy restricted to 6 battleships
Dolchstoss (“Stab in the back” myth) - nationalist view that the Weimar republic was at fault for the humiliation at Versailles.
Furthermore, they argued the German army could continue to fight instead of agreeing to sign the armistice in 1918.
In the 1920s, German politicians were committed to reverse some clauses imposed on the country.
Gustav Stresemann, foreign minister, successfully negotiated Germany’s entry to the League of Nations and achieved Allied withdrawal from the Rhineland. This demonstrated how although these aims had been prevalent, Germany could achieve this through diplomacy and negotiation rather than resorting to force.
Mitteleuropa - the idea of unifying ethnic-German populations in a Central European state was not new and was present since Prussian times.
Impact of domestic economic issues on the foreign policies of Germany
Impact of the Great Depression
Crisis key to Weimar Republic collapse - the country’s economy heavily relied on US loans and the economic recovery was fragile.
Influenced growth of Nazi power - the crisis was key in the collapse of the republic and the rise of Hitler. In 1932, unemployment was at 6 million and the Nazi party achieved 37% of seats in the Reichstag.
In 1933, due to the party’s popularity, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor.
Economic recovery in the 1930s made Germany Europe’s most ‘powerful industrial and military power’ and accelerated German rearmament as well as enabling aggressive and expansionist foreign policies
Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe
The end of collective security
Collective security is a term used to describe the relatively peaceful atmosphere, where no countries threaten to invade others as well as recognising that if one country was attacked, others needed to respond.
Germany was not seen as a threat - it sought amendments through diplomatic route and accepted the eastern borders through the Locarno Pact (1925)
The Wall Street Crash (1929) had a global impact - all countries wanted to protect industries from foreign competition, therefore fostering isolation and lack of cooperation in the international community. These conditions facilitated potential expansion and helped boost popularity of extremist parties such as the Nazi party.
Hitler came to power in 1933 with intentions to reverse the Treaty of Versailles by force.
Non-Aggression Pact (1934)
Signed with Poland and effective for 10 years. The pact was used as an ‘act of statesmanship’ to international community, in an attempt to convince Germany was still a diplomatic nation
In reality, bilateral agreements were easier to break, thus preferred by Hitller.
Pact undermined France's security - the country counted on Poland to fight a potential German invasion (as stated in a 1921 alliance) and Germany had overlooked legal barriers imposed by France. Furthermore, the pact prevented a reconciliation and alliance between Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Appeasement
British foreign policy concerned with making concessions to Hitler in hopes to maintain peace in Europe. Some factors that shaped the policy and undermined collective security include;
Revision of Versailles restrictions
Britain believed some of the clauses were too harsh and believed negotiating a limited set of amendments could guarantee European peace. Moreover, this policy was still enforced when Hitler occupied German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.
Reluctance to confront Germany
Britain as well as other European powers (like France) did not want to take military action without the support from the US, which was following an isolationist policy since the 1920s.
Concern with domestic issues and colonies
The Great Depression caused economic issues and delayed British rearmament until 1934. The crisis made foreign policies more aggressive.
Britain was particularly concerned with Japan taking over its possessions in East Asia.
Unrest in different parts of the empire (India, Mandate of Palestine) made Britain focus its attention on quelling uprisings rather than being dragged to European conflict.
Events
Italian Expansion
Abyssinia (1935—1936)
Reasons
Avenge humiliating defeat at the Battle of Adwa (