Lifespan Development Chapter 4: Physical, Neurological, and Perceptual Development

Neurological and Brain Development

• Central Nervous System and Brain Structures:

  • The cortex is the least developed structure in the brain compared to other central nervous system structures during early developmental stages.
  • The medulla and midbrain within the central nervous system control primitive functions, adaptive reflexes, and essential biological processes.

• Specific Brain Structures and Neural Processes:

  • Reticular Formation (reicular formation): The part of the brain that regulates attention and alertness.
  • Myelination: The process of forming a myelin sheath around axons to facilitate efficient neurological transmission.

Theoretical Frameworks of Perception and Development

• Perceptual Theories:

  • Nativists: Theorists who claim that perceptual abilities are innate and present from birth.
  • Empirists: Theorists who argue that perceptual abilities are learned through experience and environmental interaction.

• Dynamic Developmental Theory:

  • Dynamic Systems Theory: The view that several distinct factors interact to influence human development.

Sensory, Perceptual, and Visual Concepts

• Research Techniques and Visual Assessment:

  • Preference Technique: A research method in which a researcher keeps track of how long a baby looks at each of two objects shown.
  • Habituation: A decline in attention that occurs because a stimulus has become familiar.
  • Dishabituation: Responding to a somewhat familiar stimulus as if it were new after a change in presentation.
  • Circadian Rhythms: The natural light/dark cycle of the world.

• Spatial and Depth Perception Cues:

  • Kinetic Cues: Perceptual cues that come from either your own motion or the motion of an object.
  • Binocular Cues: Depth cues that involve both eyes, each of which receives a slightly different visual image of an object.
  • Monocular Cues: Depth cues that require input from only one eye.
  • Linear Perspective: A monocular cue where the relative sizes of two similar objects seen in the distance may indicate that the smaller appearing one is further away.
  • Interposition: A depth cue where one object is partially in front of another one, indicating that the partially hidden object is farther away.

• Auditory, Cross-Modal, and Facial Perception:

  • Auditory Acuity: The ability to clearly hear sounds of waring frequencies.
  • Intermodal Perception: The formation of a single perception of a stimulus that is based on information from two or more senses.
  • Same Race Effect: The phenomenon characterized by more consistent recognition of faces of one's own race than those of other races.

Motor Skill Development Chronology

• Development Timeline by Age:
  • 1 Month:
  • Reflex/Cause: Breathing reflex.
  • Mobility Skill: Lifts head slightly.
  • Manipulative Skill: Holds object if placed into hand.
  • 2 to 3 Months:
  • Mobility Skill: Lifts head up to a $90^\text{o}$ angle when lying on stomach.
  • Manipulative Skill: Begins to swipe at objects in sight (the first manipulative skill a child typically develops independently).
  • 4 to 6 Months:
  • Mobility Skill: Rolls over, sits with support, moves on ("creeps"), and holds head erect while in sitting position.
  • Manipulative Skill: Reaches for and grasps objects.
  • 7 to 9 Months:
  • Mobility Skill: Sits up without support and crawls.
  • Manipulative Skill: Transfers objects from one hand to the other.

Reflexes, Muscle Composition, and Cultural Variations

• Reflex Classifications:

  • Adaptive Reflexes: Reflexes such as sucking that help infants survive.
  • Stepping Reflex: The tendency for very young infants to attempt to take steps when they are placed in an upright position with their feet touching a flat surface.

• Biological Traits and Muscle Dynamics:

  • Newborn Muscle Composition: A newborn baby's muscles contain a rather high proportion of fat.

• Cultural Variations in Motor Milestones:

  • African Infant Precocity: A phenomenon in which African infants, especially those born in rural areas, reach some major motor milestones earlier than babies in other parts of the world.
  • Cultural Etiology: Rural African infants reach motor milestones sooner than babies in other cultures, probably due to specific cultural practices that actively promote motor development.

Nutritional Deficits and Malnutrition

• Categories of Malnutrition:

  • Micronutrient Malnutrition: Results from a deficiency of certain vitamins and or minerals in the diet.
  • Macronutrient Malnutrition: Results from a deficit of major dietary components including proteins and carbohydrates.

• Specific Malnourished Conditions:

  • Kwashiorkor: A disease that results from a diet that does not contain enough protein.
  • Marasmus: A disease that results from severe calorie deficit.