Comprehensive Study Guide for Criminal Justice and Race Relations (Chapters 1-7)

Civil Rights History and Racially-Motivated Violence

• New York Draft Riots ($1863$): An event where an unaccounted number of African-Americans were killed in the streets by blue-collar workers. These workers were initially resentful of the military draft but later directed their anger at Black people with whom they competed for job opportunities.
• Emmett Till: In $1955$, a $14 ext{-year-old}$ Black male who was beaten, shot in the head, and had one eye gouged out. He was flung into a river with a $70 ext{-pound}$ engine attached to his neck with barbed wire. The justification for this murder was "reckless eyeballing" a White woman.
• Tulsa Race Massacre (Greenwood): Took place in Oklahoma, often referred to as "Black Wall Street." It involved Dick Rowland (a Black man) and Sarah Page (a White woman). After Rowland was arrested for attempted rape based on Page's claim that he attacked her in an elevator (becoming a "folk devil"), a group of $500$ White people gathered to lynch him. A.J. Smitherman brought $WW1$ Veterans to protect Rowland; a struggle ensued, shots were fired, and the massacre began.
• Rosewood Massacre: Occurred in Florida from January $1 ext{st}$ to January $7 ext{th}$, $1923$. A White woman claimed she was beaten and assaulted by a Black man. A racist mob spent seven days lynching, assaulting, and killing residents.
• $16 ext{th}$ Baptist Church Bombing: Took place on September $15 ext{th}$, $1963$, in Birmingham, Alabama. Members of the $KKK$ bombed the church, which served as a civil rights meeting spot, killing $4$ young African American girls.
• Michael Brown: An unarmed Black teenage boy who was shot and killed by police officer Darren Wilson. He was shot $12$ times.
• Rodney King: A victim of police brutality. His beating, captured on film by George Holliday, led to the $1992$ Los Angeles Riots.
• The Kerner Report: A report that concluded the widespread U.S. riots of $1967$ were caused by systemic white racism, police brutality, and economic disparities, rather than a conspiracy.

Legal Frameworks, the Constitution, and Governance

• The Constitution: Defined as a social contract.
• $4 ext{th}$ Amendment: Protects individuals from unreasonable searches and seizures. It requires warrants to be based on probable cause and is central to modern debates on policing and surveillance.
• $5 ext{th}$ Amendment: Ensures individuals are not treated unfairly by the government. Rights include remaining silent (protection against self-incrimination), protection against double jeopardy (being tried twice for the same crime), and the right to due process. It also requires just compensation for private property taken for public use.
• $6 ext{th}$ Amendment: Guarantees rights to those accused of a crime to ensure trial fairness, including:     * A speedy and public trial.     * An impartial jury.     * Being informed of the charges.     * The right to confront witnesses.     * The right to legal counsel.
• $8 ext{th}$ Amendment: Prohibits excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment.
• $14 ext{th}$ Amendment: Guarantees an individual's right to due process.
• The Patriot Act: Legislation enacted after the September $11 ext{th}$, $2001$ terrorist attacks. Fueled by fear of future attacks, it aimed to detain people who "looked like a terrorist," specifically targeting Middle Eastern individuals.
• Three Branches of Government: Judicial, Legislative, and Executive.
• Statute of Limitations for Murder: There is no statute of limitations for the crime of murder.

Slavery, Its Aftermath, and Forced Labor Systems

• Treaty of Ghent: Ended the War of $1812$ between the U.S. and Great Britain and ended the international slave trade.
• Fugitive Slave Act ($1793$, $1850$): Laws created to ensure runaway slaves were returned to their owners, thereby reinforcing the system of slavery.
• Slave Patrols: Groups in the South that controlled and enforced laws against enslaved people by checking passes and capturing runaways.
• Black Codes: Laws enforced in the South after the Civil War to eliminate the rights of freed slaves, control their labor, and maintain racial segregation.
• Convict Lease System: A system that allowed incarcerated individuals (predominantly Black men) to be leased to private companies for labor, continuing racial exploitation post-abolition.
• Chattel Slavery: A system where enslaved people were treated literally as animals and denied access to education.
• Manumission: The act of an enslaver freeing enslaved people.
• MAAFA: A Swahili term meaning "great tragedy," referring to the long-term impact of slavery and oppression on African people.
• "Dapetomania": A fake mental illness created by Dr. Samuel Cartwright. It claimed enslaved people who tried to escape were mentally ill, using pseudoscience to justify slavery.
• Nat Turner: An enslaved African American who led a rebellion against slave owners, resulting in the deaths of $60$ White people. He believed God chose him to free his people; the rebellion led to harsher laws against the enslaved.

Sociological Concepts and Definitions

• Race: Defined as a social and political construct.
• Ethnicity: Refers to cultural traits such as language and traditions that define a group; distinct from race.
• Minority vs. POC: "Minority" has a negative connotation and is viewed as a term of oppression.
• Urban: A term often used to refer to communities of color.
• Tyranny of the Majority: Occurs when a majority group uses power to create policies that oppress a minority group.
• Manifest Destiny: The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand westward, used to justify violence, land theft, and the killing of Indigenous peoples.
• Trail of Tears: The forced relocation of Native American tribes during the $1830 ext{s}$. Thousands were slaughtered due to policies rooted in Manifest Destiny.
• One-drop Rule: Social rule where any drop of African blood made a person African, though it did not function in the reverse.
• Assimilation: When immigrants adopt local customs to "fit in," such as White immigrants at Ellis Island changing their last names.
• Passing: Appearing White to avoid facing discrimination.
• Xenophobia: Fear, prejudice, or dislike of anyone perceived as different.
• Genocide: The annihilation of an entire group of people.

Criminological Theories and the Study of Crime

• Cesare Lombroso (Positivist School): Known as the "Father of Criminology." He theorized that some are "born criminal" and that criminality is in one's $DNA$.
• Cesare Beccaria (Classical School): Argued that committing a crime is a rational choice made through free will.
• Enrico Ferri: A student of Lombroso who shared the ideology of the Chicago School.
• Chicago School: Argues that crime is a product of sociological environments rather than just biology or individual choice; considered "ground zero" for understanding urban crime.
• Strain Anomie Theory: Developed by Robert Merton. It posits that economic strain is the main cause of crime, though Merton noted it does not apply to white-collar workers.
• General Strain Theory: Developed by Robert Agnew. A broader theory suggesting people turn to crime due to various stresses, such as losing a loved one or facing abuse, not just economic lack.
• Differential Association Theory: Created by Edwin Sutherland. States that deviant behavior is learned through social interaction (e.g., gangs) rather than inherited.
• Labeling Theory: Focuses on how the perspectives of others influence individual behavior. Constantly labeling someone as "deviant" leads them to believe and act on that label.
• Critical Race Theory ($CRT$): An analytical framework examining the intersection of race, law, and social power. It posits that racism is a systemic issue embedded in legal structures, not just individual bias.
• Social Learning Theory: Related to how behaviors are acquired through observation and imitation.

Judicial Procedures and Significant Court Cases

• Plessy v. Ferguson: Established the "separate but equal" doctrine, allowing for legal segregation.
• Brown v. Board of Education: Ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.
• Batson v. Kentucky: Ruled that prosecutors cannot use peremptory challenges to exclude jurors solely based on race.
• Gideon v. Wainwright: Established that all felony defendants have a right to legal counsel under the $6 ext{th}$ Amendment, even in state courts.
• Hernandez v. New York: Ruled that prosecutors can dismiss potential jurors for being bilingual.
• Furman v. Georgia ($1972$): Found the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment in a specific case of an accidental burglary death.
• Gregg v. Georgia ($1976$): Ruled that the death penalty does not violate the $8 ext{th}$ or $14 ext{th}$ Amendments.
• Coker v. Georgia: Ruled that sentencing rapists to death is cruel and unusual punishment.
• McCleskey v. Kemp: Established that statistical evidence of racial bias in death penalty sentencing is insufficient to prove a constitutional violation of the $8 ext{th}$ Amendment.
• Voir Dire Process: The process of selecting potential jurors.
• Peremptory Challenges: A lawyer's right to remove a potential juror without providing an explanation.
• Jury Nullification: When a jury returns a non-guilty verdict even if they believe the defendant is guilty.
• Judicial Override: A legal practice where a judge overrules a jury's sentencing decision.
• Plea Bargaining: A negotiation where a defendant pleads guilty or "no contest" for a lesser sentence.

Law Enforcement, Policing, and Surveillance

• FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation): The primary federal law enforcement agency in the U.S., responsible for investigating federal law violations and collecting national crime data.
• UCR (Uniform Crime Reports): National crime data collected by the $FBI$ based on police reports. The transcript notes these are considered not valid.
• NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey): The primary source of data on nonfatal, personal, and household crimes in the U.S.
• Militarization of Police: The adoption of military-grade equipment, tactics, and culture by civilian law enforcement. The "War on Drugs" is cited as a primary driver.
• Dual Court System: The distinction between State (e.g., $DUI$, corruption) and Federal (e.g., drug trafficking, cybercrimes, kidnapping) courts.
• Crime Funnel: A model showing how crime is filtered through the system:     * Wide Opening: Many crimes are committed but not all are reported.     * Reporting: Only a fraction are reported to police.     * Arrests: Fewer reported crimes lead to arrests.     * Prosecution: Even fewer cases result in prosecution.     * Convictions: The narrowest part of the funnel.
• Mandatory Minimum Sentencing: Enacted by Reagan, requiring judges to impose predetermined minimum terms for specific crimes, primarily drug-related, removing judicial discretion.
• Color of Authority: The abuse or misuse of power by those in official positions.

Bias, Social Psychology, and Modern Social Issues

• Cognitive Dissonance: Mental discomfort experienced when beliefs and actions do not align or when holding two conflicting beliefs simultaneously.
• Implicit Association Test ($IAT$): Introduced by Dr. Anthony G. Greenwald and Dr. Mahzarin Banaji to show subconscious bias and xenophobia.
• Dog Whistle Term: Coded language that appears harmless but is used to target or identify specific races (e.g., "States Rights").
• The Clark Doll Experiment: Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark. Black children preferred White dolls over Black dolls when asked which was prettier, highlighting internalized racism. Used in Brown v. Board.
• Intergenerational Trauma: The history of traumatic events passed down through generations. Example: A grandfather reacting with distress to a granddaughter wearing striped pajamas resembling Concentration Camp uniforms.
• Moral Panic: Termed by Stanley Cohen; creating a problem that does not exist to signify an "evil force" threatening society.
• Folk Devil: Individuals or groups considered deviant or outside societal norms.
• The Bell Curve by Charles Murray and Richard Herrnstein: A book arguing that African Americans were inferior based on its theories of intelligence and class structure.
• Bad Apple Syndrome: The idea that racial inequality is built into the foundation and policies of police departments, rather than being limited to a few individual "bad" officers.

Key Historical Figures and Organizations

• W.E.B. Du Bois: Co-founder of the $NAACP$, first Black person to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard, and developer of the "Double Consciousness" concept (conflicting internal lenses for Black Americans).
• NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): Nation's oldest and largest civil rights organization, founded in $1909$.
• Niagara Movement: Civil rights organization created by W.E.B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter prior to the $NAACP$.
• Bass Reeves: First Black deputy U.S. Marshal west of the Mississippi; the original inspiration for the Lone Ranger (later played by White men).
• KKK (Ku Klux Klan): White supremacist organization created by $6$ Confederate veterans ($Luther ext{ }McCord$, $Frank ext{ }McCord$, $John ext{ }Lester$, $John ext{ }Kennedy$, $J. ext{ }Calvin ext{ }Jones$, and $James ext{ }Crowe$) in Pulaski, TN. Name comes from the Greek word for "circle."
• General Nathan Bedford Forrest: Targeted African Americans established as political leaders.
• William Joseph Simmons: Capitalized on the $KKK$ ("Invisible Empire") and wrote the "Kloran" (book of laws).
• SPLC (Southern Poverty Law Center): Non-profit dedicated to fighting hate and discrimination through litigation and education.
• ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union): Protects civil liberties guaranteed by the Constitution.
• Bartolomé de las Casas: Historical figure who suggested Columbus use Africans as slaves instead of other races.
• Rosa Parks: Refused to give up her seat for a White man, starting bus boycotts and propelling MLK to leadership.
• Eugene "Bull" Connor: Chief of Public Safety in the $1960 ext{s}$ who used dogs and firehoses on Black children during protests.
• MOVE: "Christian movement for life" created by John Africa in $1972$. In $1985$, Philadelphia police bombed their headquarters, killing $11$ people and destroying $61$ homes. Ramona Africa is the only survivor.
• Joan Trumpauer: Civil rights activist and Freedom Rider jailed for $2$ months in maximum security.
• Viola Liuzzo: Civil rights activist and mother of $5$ killed by $3$ $KKK$ members during a voting rights march.

Incarceration and the Justice System

• Mass Incarceration: The large-scale imprisonment of people in the U.S.
• Prison Industrial Complex: The overlap of government and private interests in the expansion of the prison system.
• CCA/CoreCivic: Corrections Corporation of America, a private prison company known for corrupting policies for profit.
• Eastern State Penitentiary: Used as a universal model for a prison, influenced by Jeremy Bentham.
• Probation vs. Parole: Probation is an alternative to jail; parole is supervised release after serving time.
• Three Strike Rule: Sentencing individuals to life in prison after committing $3$ felonies.
• Pareto Principle: In a criminal justice context, the idea that $20 ext{\%}$ of criminals are responsible for $80 ext{\%}$ of crimes.
• Recidivism: The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend.
• School-to-Prison Pipeline: Policies that encourage a path from school to the criminal justice system for marginalized youth.
• Bail: Money given as a guarantee for release until trial.
• Drug Courts: Systems focused on treatment and rehabilitation over punishment.

Miscellaneous Terms and Events

• Bracero Program: Brought Mexican workers to the U.S. for agriculture during $WWII$; they were sent away when no longer needed.
• Chinese Exclusion Act: Banned Chinese immigrants from entering the U.S. and prevented those present from becoming citizens.
• Immigration Act of $1924$: Set quotas on immigrants, specifically targeting groups like Italians.
• Relocation Centers: Incarceration camps for Japanese people after Pearl Harbor due to loyalty concerns.
• The Great Society: Program by Lyndon B. Johnson ($LBJ$) which included the Civil Rights Acts of $1964$, $1965$, and $1968$.
• Wickersham Report: Investigated police brutality under Herbert Hoover.
• "Born a Crime": Book/concept by Trevor Noah regarding South African apartheid.
• The Reproduction of Evil (Sue Grand): Describes how trauma victims may become perpetrators, creating a cycle of violence.
• Innocence Project: Founded by Barry Scheck and Peter Neufeld; uses $DNA$ testing to overturn wrongful convictions.
• DNA Fingerprinting: Created by Alec Jeffreys.
• Buccal Swab: Method of collecting $DNA$ by swabbing the inside of the cheek.
• $CODIS$: Combined DNA Index System managed by the $FBI$.
• Bloody Code: A period in England where many minor crimes carried the death penalty; abolished by Sir Robert Peel.
• Super Predator: A term used during the Clinton administration to describe impulsive, violent juveniles.