Buddhism, Capital Dynamics, and Cultural Reflections in Ancient Japan
Buddhist Figures and Concepts In Focus
Amida Buddha (Amitābha)
Central to the idea of a 'saving power' figure.
Focuses on cutting off the endless cycle of transmigration (rebirth).
His worship became central to a popularized movement in Japan, especially from the Heian period, and remains significant today.
Associated with the idea of 'release' or 'final release' from transmigration, leading to Reverting to Zero Land (Pure Land).
Maitreya (Miroku)
Another notion of a successor Buddha, one who comes after the historical Buddha.
Functions similarly to Amida in representing 'future release' or future states of being one may rise or fall into, but eventually be released from.
Popularly associated with millenarian cults and concepts like treasure ships arriving from afar, signifying future prosperity.
Maitreya's statuary from this period (and in Korean sculpture, which influenced Japanese art) is noted for its sublimely neutral artistic style.
Yakushi Nyorai (Bhaiṣajyaguru)
A Mahayana Buddhist figure for healing.
Holds significant importance, especially in Northern Buddhism, sometimes positioned at the top of the pantheon.
The association of salvation with healing is a very old concept, also present in Christianity.
Referred to as Yadōra (藥師如来) in Japanese.
Notably, the distinct hand gestures (mudras) and the overall style of human figure representation in Buddhist sculpture, including Yakushi, bear the direct imprint of Greek statuary.
This influence dates back to Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia, with Greek sculptors spreading their art through India and beyond.
Features like the shape of the head, ears, and nose in early Buddhist art are not accidental and show Hellenistic roots.
The Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra)
Considered the 'ultimate form' of the Buddha's teaching before his departure.
Referred to as the 'final teachings' or the 'living teacher'.
Key Themes and Figures:
Bodhisattvas: Saving figures who defer entrance into Nirvana to remain in the world of suffering sentient beings and ensure their salvation.
The Burning House Parable: The world is likened to a burning house where nothing lasts. A father, to rescue his children engrossed in play, creates a 'holy lie' or 'pious lie' by promising wonderful toys outside the house.
This 'skillful means' (upaya) is used to lure beings out of their ignorant state (the burning house of suffering).
The Lotus Symbol: The lotus flower emerges beautifully out of mud, decay, and stagnant pools.
This symbolizes salvation and beauty arising from the human condition of cravings, suffering, and spiritual mud, often through the intercession of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
Capital Relocation: Nara to Heian
Original Capital (Nara)
Divided into six major sects (Rokushū), each with a specific form of worship, competing for patronage at the court.
When the capital moved, these six sects were not abolished but 'left behind,' excluded from the new capital, though some continued to function.
Problem of Ordination Practice
Priestly ordination was central to religious and political life, especially given Buddhism's monastic institutions (Sama).
The 'Three Treasures' (Buddha, Dharma/teaching, Sama/monastic institution) highlight its importance.
Corruption in ordination practices, where religious office could be 'bought' through patronage, became a serious issue, likened to simony problems in the Catholic Church preceding the Reformation.
This corruption was observed in the Ritsu sect (律宗), primarily responsible for monastic discipline and ordination.
Role of Ganjin (Jianzhen, 鑒真)
To restore legitimacy and rescue Buddhism from corruption, the Ritsu sect recruited Ganjin, a key monk from China, to Japan.
Ganjin's job was to renew ordination practices and brought numerous sutras and other religious influences.
His journey to Japan, despite multiple failed attempts, underscores the missionary enterprise of Buddhism (similar to Christianity) and the idea of propagating Chinese culture as a whole.
His accounts also provide insights into the Chinese imperial capital of Changan as seen by Japanese observers.
Nara as a 'Touchstone'
The enduring attractiveness of Nara persisted for later generations, especially during times of national trauma or historical upset (e.g., post-WWII, 1945 onwards).
It represented a 'good history' to rediscover, as seen in novels like the 1958 work 'Tenpyō no Iraka' (Roof Tile of Tenpyo), reflecting a search for a more sustained national history.
Geomancy and City Planning
Nara (Heijō-kyō) and later capitals like Heian-kyō (Kyoto) were meticulously laid out on a symmetrical grid plan, influenced by Chinese imperial capitals.
Principle of Facing South: Rulers traditionally faced south, symbolizing their dominion over the land.
Protection of the North: The area behind the ruler (to the north) had to be protected. Capitals were often cited to be surrounded by mountains to the north to deter marauding forces and provide spiritual protection (placement of major temples and shrines).
Unlike Chinese capitals, Japanese capitals like Nara were not primarily built out of fear of barbarian invasions, though frontier warfare was ongoing in Kyushu and the Far North.
Emperor Shōmu (聖武天皇)
A 'great pious king' and strong promoter of Buddhism during this early period.
Presided over the dedication ceremony for the Great Buddha statue at Todai-ji in 752. This was an international event, inviting dignitaries from Korea, China, Vietnam, and Cambodia.
This event demonstrated Japan's growing importance as a cultural center of the Buddhist world and showcased its wealth and effort (massive statue with precious metals, bronze).
Reflected the Japanese nationalist idea that Buddhism was 'destined to move eastward' from India, through China and Korea, reaching its culmination in Japan.
Connected to the concept of Gōkoku Shisō (護国思想): the idea that Buddhism protects the country, monarchy, and court.
This concrete expression of state protection mandated that every one of Japan's 66 provinces (linked by 7 major circuit roads) must have a state-protecting temple (Kokubun-ji or Kokubunni-ji).
Dōkyō (道鏡) Affair and Capital Move to Heian-kyō
Dōkyō was a charismatic, learned, and pious monk who gained significant influence at court, particularly with the Empress Shōtoku (孝謙天皇/称徳天皇).
He was seen as a symbol of the link between Buddhism and nobility.
Rumored to have sought to supplant the emperor, which created spiritual and political danger for the monarchy.
This threat was a direct, close-in reason for the court's decision to move away from Nara, seeking to avoid such spiritual vulnerability.
The capital briefly moved to Nagaoka-kyō for about a decade before settling in Heian-kyō (Kyoto), which remained the capital for over a century.
Court Life and Literary Insights
Heian-kyō (Kyoto)
Built on the same grid plan as Nara, with a prominent central avenue.
Ringed on three sides by difficult mountain ranges, especially to the north, offering natural protection.
Imperial Court Amusements
Kemari: A formal kickball game played at court, with many detailed descriptions of court life and games.
Sedōden: The most important ceremonial hall at the palace, sharing architectural similarities with the Imperial Repository at Nara, indicating established architectural patterns.
Rajo Gate (羅城門)
The southern gate of the city, massive in scale.
A place where people of 'iffy occupations' or those dependent on charity gathered, making it a focal point for the common mass of humanity.
Famously depicted as a setting in Kurosawa's film 'Rashomon'.
Literary Figures and Interpretations
Sei Shōnagon (清少納言): Author of 'The Pillow Book' (枕草子), a collection of essays and lists. It contains hundreds of lists of things she found interesting, endearing, repulsive, or otherwise noteworthy.
Murasaki Shikibu (紫式部): Author of 'The Tale of Genji' (源氏物語), an enormously long, diffused novel of court life.
Motoori Norinaga (本居宣長): A prominent Japanese scholar who critiqued traditional interpretations of 'The Tale of Genji'.
He argued that prior interpretations, based on Confucian and Buddhist didactic views, misrepresented the novel's true purpose.
He rejected the idea of judging characters as 'good' (Confucian virtues like filial piety) or 'bad' (unfilial, without benevolence).
Norinaga believed the novel's appeal lay in its exploration of 'mono no aware' (物の哀れ), the 'poignancy of human existence', and the capacity for empathy.
For him, Prince Genji, despite being a 'dodgy character' by Buddhist and Confucian standards (e.g., a seducer), was compelling because of his ability to be 'moved' or 'empathetic'.