Consciousness is the awareness people have of themselves and their environment.
It's an organism's awareness of itself and its surroundings.
The level and state of consciousness can vary substantially.
Altered States and Forms of Consciousness
Some states occur spontaneously:
Daydreaming
Drowsiness
Dreaming
Some are physiologically induced:
Food or oxygen starvation
Hallucinations
Orgasm
Some are psychologically induced:
Sensory deprivation
Hypnosis
Meditation
Divided Attention
Divided attention is an example of an altered state of consciousness.
Example: Using a cell phone while driving puts the driver, passengers, other drivers, and pedestrians at risk.
Selective Attention
Millions of bits of information bombard our senses every second.
Selective attention is the brain's ability to choose a focus and select what to notice.
Selective Attention and Conversation
The good news: we can focus our mental spotlight on a conversation even when other conversations are ongoing around us; this is known as the cocktail party effect.
The bad news: we can hyperfocus on a conversation while driving a car, putting the driver and passengers at risk.
Selective Inattention
Selective inattention refers to our failure to notice part of our environment when our attention is directed elsewhere.
inattentional blindness
change blindness
Selective Inattention: what we are not focused on, what we do not notice
Selective Attention: what we focus on, what we notice
There is a limit to how much we can pay attention to simultaneously.
Inattentional Blindness
Inattentional Blindness – The failure to notice an unexpected stimulus when our attention is directed elsewhere.
Experiments show that when our attention is focused, we miss seeing what others may think is obvious to see (such as a gorilla, or a unicyclist).
Some “magic” tricks take advantage of this phenomenon.
Waking Consciousness vs. Altered State of Consciousness
Waking consciousness is a state of awareness where our thoughts and feelings are clear and organized.
Altered state of consciousness describes a shift in the quality or pattern of a person’s awareness; examples include using drugs, daydreaming, being hypnotized, or simply sleeping.
Levels of Awareness
Consciousness is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon but exists on a continuum.
High awareness and controlled processes at the top.
No awareness and coma at the bottom.
Lower awareness and automatic processes somewhere in the middle.
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS (ASCs) can exist on many levels of awareness, from high awareness to no awareness (e.g., drugs, sensory deprivation, sleep, dreaming)
The Figure 5.2 presents:
High Awareness consists of CONTROLLED PROCESSES: Require focused, maximum attention (e.g., studying for an exam, learning to drive a car)
Middle Awareness consists of AUTOMATIC PROCESSES: Require minimal attention (e.g., walking to class while talking on a cell phone, listening to your boss while daydreaming)
LITTLE OR NO AWARENESS: Biologically based lowest level of awareness (e.g., head injuries, anesthesia, coma; also the unconscious mind-a Freudian concept discussed in Chapter 13-reportedly consisting of unacceptable thoughts and feelings too painful to be admitted to consciousness)
Controlled vs. Automatic Processes
Our level of awareness depends on whether we are engaged in controlled or automatic processes.
Controlled processes demand focused attention and generally interfere with other ongoing activities.
Automatic processes require minimal attention and generally do not interfere with other ongoing activities.
Learning a new task requires complete concentration and controlled processing. Once that task is well-learned, you can switch to automatic processing.
Example:
When first learning to drive, it took all of your attention (controlled processing).
Now you can effortlessly steer a car and work the brakes simultaneously (automatic processing).
Sleep and Dreaming
Sleep is regulated by two body systems: Sleep/Wake Homeostasis and the Circadian Biological Clock.
When we have been awake for a long period of time, Sleep/Wake Homeostasis tells us that a need for sleep is accumulating and that it is time to sleep.
Sleep/wake homeostasis helps us to get enough sleep to make up for the hours of being awake and helps to balance sleep and wakefulness.
If we relied only on sleep/wake homeostasis, we would be most alert as our day was starting out, and that the longer we were awake, the more we would feel like sleeping.
Biology of Sleep
Circadian rhythm
Cycle of body rhythms that occur over a 24-hour period.
“circa” – about
“diem” – day
Sleep-Wake cycle is controlled by the hypothalamus
Circadian Rhythm
Our internal circadian biological clocks regulate the timing of periods of sleepiness and wakefulness throughout the day.
Adults' strongest sleep drive generally occurs between 2:00-4:00 am and in the afternoon between 1:00-3:00 pm, although there is some variation depending on whether you are a “morning person” or “evening person.”
The sleepiness we experience during these circadian dips will be less intense if we have had sufficient sleep, and more intense when we are sleep deprived.
Changes to this circadian rhythm occur during adolescence; most teens experience a sleep phase delay.
Melatonin levels in a teen-agers blood naturally rise later at night than in most children and adults.
Most teens wake up early for school and other commitments, this sleep phase delay can make it difficult for the teen to get the sleep they need -- an average of 9 \frac{1}{4} hours, but at least 8 \frac{1}{2} hours.
For teens the strongest circadian dips tend to occur between 3:00-7:00 am and 2:00-5:00 pm, but the morning dip (3:00- 7:00 am) can be even longer if teens haven’t had enough sleep and can even last until 9:00 or 10:00 am.
Internal Desynchronization
Like shift work, flying across several time zones can disrupt our circadian rhythms, cause fatigue and irritability, decrease alertness and mental agility, and worsen psychiatric disorders.
Such effects are often referred to as jet lag.
Researchers suggest that starting pitchers for jet-lagged teams, particularly when flying eastward, might improve their pitching by traveling to the game location a few days ahead of the team to allow time to adjust to the new time zone.
A state when biological rhythms are not in phase with each other
Airplane flights across time zones
Adjusting to new work shifts
Affected by illness, stress, fatigue, excitement, drugs, mealtimes, and daily experiences.
Disruptions in Sleep Cycles
Disruptions in sleep cycles can cause problems, such as accidents or fatigue from shift work.
Sleep deprivation is correlated with significant mood alterations, decreased self-esteem, reduced concentration and motivation, increased irritability, lapses in attention, reduced motor skills, and increased cortisol levels.
Jet lag correlates with decreased alertness, decreased mental agility, exacerbation of psychiatric disorders, and overall reduced efficiency
Jet lag also tends to be worse when we fly eastward rather than westward because our bodies adjust more readily to going to sleep later rather than earlier.
Sleep Deprivation
Sleep Deprivation can lead to:
Reduced cognitive performance
Reduced motor performance
Irritability
Mood changes
Increased cortisol levels
Higher risk of physical illnesses
Cancer
Heart disease
Emotional reactivity
Sleep deprivation also increases the risk of cancer, heart disease, and other illnesses, in addition to impairments in the immune system, which is one reason adults who get fewer than seven hours of sleep a night are four times as likely to develop a cold as those who sleep at least eight hours a night.
Brain Wave Patterns and Sleep
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Measures electrical activity in brain
Different patterns during different stages
Beta waves
Awake, mentally active, small and fast EEG pattern
Alpha waves
Become drowsy, waves slightly larger and slower
Brain Activity During Sleep
Sleep was once regarded as an inactive brain state.
EEGs revealed that sleep was a dynamic behavior, one in which the brain was highly active at times and not turned off at all.
Conscious Brain Wave Frequencies
Gamma waves are important for learning, memory, and information processing.
They are involved in higher processing tasks as well as cognitive functioning.
Individuals who are mentally challenged and have learning disabilities tend to have lower gamma activity than average
Beta waves are involved in conscious thought, logical thinking, and tend to have a stimulating effect.
Having the right amount of beta waves allows us to focus and complete school or work-based tasks easily.
Having too much beta may lead to us experiencing excessive stress and/or anxiety.
Scientific Study of Sleep and Dreaming
Using EEGs and other instruments that measured eye movements and muscle activity, sleep studies revealed two main types of sleep.
REM Sleep
Non-REM Sleep
These types of sleep were defined by characteristic electrical patterns in a sleeping person's brain, as well as the presence or absence of eye movements.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
Circadian rhythm
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Hypothalamic structure that is light sensitive
Signals to pineal gland to release melatonin
As daylight fades, the SCN tells the pineal gland (at the base of the brain) to secrete the hormone melatonin.
As melatonin accumulates, the person will feel sleepy.
As the light coming to the eyes increases, the SCN tells the pineal gland to stop secreting melatonin, allowing the body to awaken
In studies where volunteers spend several days without access to information about day or night, their sleep-wake cycle lengthened to 25 hours.
Based on this research, it appears the SCN may be responsible for resetting the body's biological clock to a 24-hour cycle every day.
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) and Melatonin
The circadian biological clock is controlled by the Supra – chias - matic Nucleus (SCN), a group of about 20,000 cells in the hypothalamus that respond to light and dark signals.
The optic nerve of the eye sends light to the SCN, this tells our internal clock that it is time to wake up.
The SCN signals to other parts of the brain that control hormones, body temperature and other functions that play a role in making us feel sleepy or awake.
The morning’s light triggers the SCN, and it sends signals to our body systems to raise body temperature and produce hormones like cortisol.
The SCN responds to light by delaying the release of other hormones like melatonin, which is associated with sleep onset and is produced when the eyes signal to the SCN that it is dark.
Melatonin levels rise in the evening and stay elevated throughout the night, promoting sleep.
Two Different Types of Sleep
REM sleep
Relatively active type of sleep
Most dreaming takes place in this stage
Voluntary muscle movement is inhibited
Non-REM sleep
Deeper, more restful kind of sleep
Muscle movement not inhibited
Four stages
Stages and Cycles of Sleep
Sleep stages refer to distinct patterns of brain waves and muscle activity that are associated with different types of consciousness and sleep. There are four types of sleep.
Sleep cycles refer to the patterns of shifting through all the sleep stages over the course of the night. We “cycle” through all the sleep stages in about 90 minutes on average.
REM Sleep
Eugene Aserinsky’s discovery (1953): dreams occurred during periods of wild brain activity and rapid eye movements [REM sleep].
Heart rate rises and breathing becomes rapid.
“Sleep paralysis” occurs when the brainstem blocks the motor cortex’s messages, and the muscles don’t move. This is sometimes known as “paradoxical sleep”; the brain is active, but the body is immobile.
Genitals are aroused (not caused by dream content)
REM Sleep Throughout Life
Infants sleep around 14 hours and spends 40% of that time in REM.
Adults sleeps about 7.5 hours, with 20% of that in REM.
The average 70-year-old sleeps only 6 hours, with 14% of that in REM.
Hypnogogic images - you might hear your name called or a loud noise or feel as if you're falling or floating weightlessly.
Myoclonic jerks - sensation of falling is often accompanied by sudden muscle movements.
Theta waves - involved in daydreaming and sleep. helps us to feel deep and raw emotions. Too much theta activity may make people prone to bouts of depression. Theta has its benefits of helping improve our intuition, and creativity, It is also involved in restorative sleep.
Alpha waves bridges the gap between our conscious thinking and subconscious mind. It helps us calm down when necessary and promotes feelings of deep relaxation.
Non-REM Stage 2: Sleep Spindles
Body temperature continues to drop
Heart rate slows, breathing becomes shallower and irregular
Muscle activity further decreases
Sleep Spindles Occur, which involve a sudden surge in brain wave frequency-
Non-REM Stage 3 and Stage 4: Delta Waves
Deepest stages of sleep Often referred to as slow wave sleep (SWS) or deep sleep.
Sleepers are very hard to awaken at this stage.
Sleepwalking, Sleep talking, and Bedwetting occur could occur in these stages.
Delta Waves These are the slowest recorded brain waves. They are associated with the deepest levels of relaxation and restorative, healing sleep. They have also been found to be involved in unconscious bodily functions such as regulating heartbeat and digestion. Adequate production of delta waves helps us feel completely rejuvenated after we wake up from a good night’s sleep. If there is abnormal delta activity, an individual may experience learning disabilities or have difficulties maintaining conscious awareness (such as in cases of brain injuries).
Why Do We Sleep?
Adaptation/Protection Theory: Sleep evolved to conserve energy and as a protection from predators
Repair/Restoration Theory: Sleep allows organisms to repair or recuperate from depleting daily waking activities
Growth/Development Theory: Deep sleep (stage 3) is correlated with physical development
Learning/Memory Theory: Sleep is important for learning and the consolidation, storage, and maintenance of memories
Dreams Theories
Dreams as Unconscious Wishes
Dreams express forbidden or unrealistic wishes and desires that have been:
May help us solve problems, work through emotional issues
Dreams as Thinking
Dreams are the same kind of activity we engage in while awake, but brain is cut off from external stimulation
Resulting thoughts are more diffuse, unfocused
Dreams as Interpreted Brain Activity
Neurons fire spontaneously in the pons, send signals with no psychological meaning to the cortex
Cortex synthesizes signals with existing knowledge and memories, tries to interpret them
Result is a dream
Cognitive View of Dreams:
dreams are simply another type of information processing that helps us organize and interpret our everyday experiences.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: persistent inability to fall asleep or stay asleep
Narcolepsy (“numb seizure”): sleep attacks, even a collapse into REM/paralyzed sleep, at inopportune times – runs in families
Sleep apnea (“with no breath”): repeated awakening after breathing stops; time in bed is not restorative sleep
Night terrors refer to sudden scared-looking behavior, with rapid heartbeat and breathing.
Sleepwalking and sleeptalking run in families, so there is a possible genetic basis. These behaviors, mostly affect children, and occur in NONREM-3 sleep. They are not considered dreaming.
Insomnia and Technology
Nearly everybody has insomnia at some time; a telltale sign is feeling poorly rested the next day.
Most people with serious insomnia have other medical or psychological disorders as well
Students who send a high number of text messages are more likely to experience symptoms of insomnia because they feel pressured to immediately respond to texts and may be awakened by alerts from incoming texts, which can reduce both the quality and quantity of their sleep.
10 to 30% of Americans experience long-term, chronic insomnia, compared to only 2% of hunter gatherers living in Africa and South America possibly because our American culture, with its smartphones, television, and hectic pace, is interfering with our need for good-quality sleep?
Sleep Aids
Prescription tranquilizers and barbiturates do help people sleep, but they decrease Stage 3 and REM sleep, seriously affecting sleep quality. In the short term – but long-term use would be quite detrimental. You end having the symptoms of sleep deprivation, because you are not getting quality sleep. And there is a risk of physical and psychological dependence.
The hormone melatonin may provide a safer alternative. Some research suggests that taking even a relatively small dose (just .3 to .4 milligrams) can help people fall asleep and stay asleep.
Research shows that not watching television or using electronic devices, like your computer, iPad, eReader, or cell phone, around bedtime makes it much easier to fall asleep. Exposure to the light from the screens on these devices disrupts the circadian rhythm and reduces the level of melatonin in the body by about 22%, which makes it more difficult to fall asleep (especially for children and teenagers).
Natural Sleep Aids
During the Day
Exercise.
Keep regular hours.
Avoid stimulants.
Avoid late meals and heavy drinking.
Stop worrying.
Use pre-sleep rituals.
Practice yoga.
In Bed
Use progressive muscle relaxation.
Use fantasies.
Use deep breathing.
Try a warm bath.
Sleep Disorders
Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
Affects 20% of population
Occurs during deep sleep
More common in children
Night terror
State of panic experienced while asleep
Relatively rare disorder
Person experiences extreme fear and screams or runs around without waking
Occurs during stage four – non-REM
Nightmares
Bad dreams occurring during REM sleep
Sleep Disorders Table
Somnambulism
Sitting, walking, or performing complex behavior while asleep
Night terrors
Extreme fear, agitation, screaming while asleep
Restless leg syndrome
Uncomfortable sensations in legs causing movement and loss of sleep
Nocturnal leg cramps
Painful cramps in calf or foot muscles
Hypersomnia
Excessive daytime sleepiness
Circadian rhythm disorders
Disturbances of the sleep-wake cycle such as jet lag and shift work
Enuresis
Urinating while asleep in bed
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive Drug: A substance that changes mental processes, such as conscious awareness, mood, and perception
Tolerance
Tolerance of a drug refers to the diminished psychoactive effects after repeated use.
Tolerance feeds addiction because users take increasing amounts of a drug to get the desired effect.
Dependence
Physical Dependence
The changes in bodily processes that make a drug necessary for minimal functioning.
Withdrawal
Discomfort and distress, including physical pain and intense cravings, experienced after stopping the use of an addictive drug
Tolerance
Bodily adjustment to continued use of a drug in which the drug user requires greater dosages to achieve the same effect
Withdrawal and Dependence
After the benefits of a substance wear off, especially after tolerance has developed, drug users may experience withdrawal (painful symptoms of the body readjusting to the absence of the drug).
Withdrawal worsens addiction because users want to resume taking the drug to end withdrawal symptoms.
In physical dependence, the body has been altered in ways that create cravings for the drug (e.g. to end withdrawal symptoms).
In psychological dependence, a person’s resources for coping with daily life wither as a drug becomes “needed” to relax, socialize, or sleep.
Dependence on a substance (or activity?)
Tolerance: the need to use more to receive the desired effect
Withdrawal: the distress experienced when the “high” subsides
Using more than intended
Persistent, failed attempts to regulate use
Much time spent preoccupied with the substance, obtaining it, and recovering
Important activities reduced because of use
Continued use despite aversive consequences
Depressants
Depressants are chemicals that reduce neural activity and other body functions.
Examples:
Alcohol
Barbiturates
Opiates
Drugs that decrease bodily processes and overall responsiveness
Effects of Alcohol Use
Impact on functioning
Slow neural processing, reduced sympathetic nervous system activity, and slower thought and physical reaction
Reduced memory formation caused by disrupted REM sleep and reduced synapse formation
Impaired self-control, impaired judgment, self-monitoring, and inhibition; increased accidents and aggression
Chronic Use: Brain damage
Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs which intensify neural activity and bodily functions.
Examples:
Caffeine
Nicotine
Amphetamines, Methamphetamine
Cocaine
Ecstasy
Some physical effects of stimulants: dilated pupils, increased breathing and heart rate, increased blood sugar, decreased appetite
Drugs that increase overall activity and general responsiveness
Caffeine
adds energy
disrupts sleep for 3-4 hours
can lead to withdrawal symptoms if used daily:
headaches
irritability
fatigue
difficulty concentrating
depression
Cocaine
Cocaine blocks reuptake (and thus increases levels at the synapse of:
dopamine (feels rewarding).
serotonin (lifts mood).
norepinephrine (provides energy).
Effect on consciousness: Euphoria!!! At least for 45 minutes…
Euphoria crashes into a state worse than before taking the drug, with agitation, depression, and pain.
Users develop tolerance; over time, withdrawal symptoms of cocaine use get worse, and users take more just to feel normal.
Cycles of overdose and withdrawal can sometimes bring convulsions, violence, heart attack, and death
Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine triggers the sustained release of dopamine, sometimes leading to eight hours of euphoria and energy.
What happens next: irritability, insomnia, seizures, hypertension, violence, depression
Opiates/Opioids
Drugs derived from opium that numb the senses and relieve pain
Examples:
Heroin
Vicodin
Methadone
Opiates depress nervous system activity; this reduces anxiety, and especially reduces pain.
High doses of opiates produce euphoria.
Opiates work at receptor sites for the body’s natural pain reducers (endorphins).
Opioid Addiction
Sometimes an individual who has been in recovery for opioid addiction may feel that they can have alcohol because they are not addicted to alcohol. This can be a fatal misbelief.
When the individual becomes intoxicated by the alcohol, their judgement becomes very impaired. In their intoxicated state, they may decide to try the opioid again, “just for old time sake.” They forget that their tolerance has been driven down because of being in recovery. They use the same dose they were used to using when their tolerance was high. The old dose is now an overdose, and the individual is now in grave danger, and will most likely not survive.
Hallucinogens
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
LSD and similar drugs interfere with serotonin transmission.
This causes hallucinations--images and other “sensations” that didn’t come in through the senses.
Marijuana/THC (delta-9-TetraHydroCannabinol)
Marijuana binds with brain cannabinoid receptors.
Effect on consciousness:
amplifies sensations
disinhibits impulses
euphoric mood
lack of ability to sense satiety
Effects of THC Use
Impaired motor coordination, perceptual ability, and reaction time
THC accumulates in the body, increasing the effects of next use
Over time, the brain shrinks in areas processing memory and emotion
Smoke inhalation damage
Hallucinogens and Club Drugs
Hallucinogens - Drugs that produce sensory or perceptual distortions; “psychedelics”
Examples:
Mescaline
Psilocybin
Phencyclidine
LSD
Club Drugs – Drugs often used by teenagers and young adults at parties, bars, and nightclubs
Examples:
Rohypnol
MDMA (Ecstasy)
GHB
Ketamine (“Special K”)
Methamphetamine
“Bath Salts”
Marijuana
Marijuana receptors are abundant throughout the brain; researchers have discovered a brain chemical (called anandamide) that binds to the same receptors that THC was previously found to use.
A second THC-like chemical (2-AG) was also discovered--no one knows the function of anandamide or 2-AG.
On the positive side, some research has found marijuana helps with glaucoma (an eye disease), with increasing appetite and alleviating the nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, and with the treatment of asthma, seizures, epilepsy, and anxiety.
Researchers also report impaired memory, attention, and learning with marijuana. In addition, it may be related to an increased risk of developing psychotic symptoms and birth defects, as well as lower IQ in children.
Chronic marijuana use also can lead to throat and respiratory disorders, impaired lung functioning, decreased immune response, declines in testosterone levels, reduced sperm count, and disruption of the menstrual cycle
Ecstasy/MDMA (MethyleneDioxyMethAmphetamine)
Ecstasy is a synthetic stimulant that increases dopamine and greatly increases serotonin.
Effects on consciousness: euphoria, CNS stimulation, hallucinations, and artificial feeling of social connectedness and intimacy
In the short run: regretted behavior, dehydration, overheating, and high blood pressure.
Summary of Desired and Aversive Effects of Various Drugs
Hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and a trance-like state of heightened suggestibility and intense focus
Narrowed, highly focused attention
Increased use of imagination and hallucinations
A passive and receptive attitude
Decreased responsiveness to pain
Heightened suggestibility
Hypnotizability
The Highly Hypnotizable 20 Percent
These people seem to be more easily absorbed in imaginative activities.
They are able to focus and to lose themselves in fantasy.
The hypnotic induction method may happen to work just right.
Induction Into Hypnosis
Hypnotic induction, the inducing of a hypnotic state, is the process by which a hypnotist leads someone into the state of heightened suggestibility.
Benefits and Fallacies of Hypnosis
Benefits of Hypnosis for Some People: With the help of posthypnotic suggestions (carried out after hypnosis session is complete), people can:
block awareness of pain, even enough for surgery without anesthesia
reduce obesity, anxiety, and hypertension
improve concentration and performance
What Hypnosis Cannot Do:
work when people refuse to cooperate
bestow ‘superhuman’ abilities or strength
accurately boost recall of forgotten events (it is more likely to implant false recall)
Hypnosis: Myths and Facts
Myth: Faking
Hypnosis participants are "faking it" and playing along with the hypnotist.
Fact: There are conflicting research positions about hypnosis. Although most participants are not consciously faking hypnosis, some researchers believe the effects result from a blend of conformity, relaxation, obedience, suggestion, and role playing. Other theorists believe that hypnotic effects result from a special ASC. A group of "unified" theorists suggest that hypnosis is a combination of both relaxation/role playing and a unique ASC.
Myth: Forced hypnosis
People can be hypnotized against their will, or hypnotically "brainwashed."
Fact: Hypnosis requires a willing, conscious choice to relinquish control of one's consciousness to someone else. The best potential subjects are those who are able to focus attention, are open to new experiences, and are capable of imaginative involvement or fantasy.
Myth: Unethical behavior
Hypnosis can make people behave immorally or take dangerous risks against their will.
Fact: Hypnotized people retain awareness and control of their behavior, and they can refuse to comply with the hypnotist's suggestions.
Myth: Superhuman strength
Under hypnosis, people can perform acts of special superhuman strength.
Fact: When nonhypnotized people are simply asked to try their hardest on tests of physical strength, they generally can do anything that a hypnotized person can do.
Myth: Exceptional memory
Under hypnosis, people can recall things they otherwise could not.
Fact: Although the heightened relaxation and focus that hypnosis engenders improves recall for some information, it adds little (if anything) to regular memory. Hypnotized people are just more willing to guess. Because memory is normally filled with fabrication and distortion (Chapter 7), hypnosis generally increases the potential for error.