Social Structure Theories of Crime - Early Development & Strain Theories

Social Structure Theories of Crime - Early Development & Strain Theories

1. Auguste Comte

  • Coined the term "Sociology".

  • First to be recognized for emphasizing & researching concepts based on macro-level factors, specifically focusing on social institutions.

2. Andre Michel Guerry

  • Examined crime statistics in France.

  • Concluded that:
      - Property crimes are higher in wealthy areas.
      - Violent crimes are significantly higher in poor areas.

  • Key Insight: Opportunity, represented by material wealth, is the primary cause of property crime.
      - Wealthy households provide thieves more opportunities to steal goods and currency.

3. Adolphe Quetelet

  • Identified certain demographic characteristics more likely to commit crimes:
      - Young, male, uneducated, unemployed, and poor individuals.

  • Introduced the concept of Relative Deprivation:
      - Defined as the heightened perception of inequality that results when relatively poor individuals live in close proximity to relatively wealthy individuals.
      - Identified a clear linear association between higher crime rates and localities with greater relative deprivation.
      - Observed that areas with rapidly changing economic conditions exhibited elevated crime rates.

  • Concluded that crime stems from societal structure and not from individual propensities, emphasizing that criminality is caused by factors outside of an individual’s control.

4. Émile Durkheim & Anomie

A. Division of Labor in Society

  • Proposed distinctions between:
      - Mechanical societies:
        - All members perform the same function (e.g., hunting and gathering).
        - Exhibits a collective consciousness: degree to which individuals think alike.
          - Less crime in such communities.
          - Law functions to enforce conformity within the group.
      - Organic societies:
        - Possesses high division of labor.
        - Leads to low collective consciousness due to diverse goals.
          - Law focuses on governing interactions among different classes.

B. Functionalism and Crime

  • Durkheim viewed crime as:
      - Normal and necessary within society.
      - A means to define moral boundaries: understanding societal rules and the implications of breaking them.
      - Essential for social bonding; a society without law violators may change definitions of criminal behavior to identify members as criminals (e.g., Salem Witch Trials).

  • Suggested that humans possess limitless selfish desires and, without guidance on fulfilling needs or desires, will never feel content.

  • Noted suicide rates are more prevalent among middle and upper classes than lower classes:
      - Stability is favored over a higher income with instability.
      - Defined suicide as a “social fact” caused by meanings and structural aspects of social interactions.
      - Rates of suicide significantly lower among married individuals, younger people, and adherents to more communal religions.
      - Variations in rates link to levels of social solidarity; variations increase during times of rapid economic change.

5. Merton’s Strain Theory

A. Overview

  • All forms of strain theory emphasize frustration as a facet in crime causation.

  • Theories trace back to Durkheim’s and Merton’s frameworks.

B. Cultural Context & Assumptions of Strain Theory

  • Universal socialization of the “American Dream”: belief that hard work will yield material success.
      - Socialized image of the goal = material wealth.
      - Socialized means of achieving the goal = diligent work (Protestant Work Ethic).

  • The disconnect between the universalization of the American Dream and its inaccessibility generates significant strain and frustration in society.
      - Most strain arises from varying emphasis on material goals versus the means to achieve them.

C. Concept of Anomie & Strain

  • Individuals in lower classes realize the ideal American Dream is unattainable, typically recognizing this in their late teens to mid-20s (age of heightened crime propensity).

  • This leads some to consider non-conventional means to achieve societal goals (material success).

D. Adaptations to Strain

  1. Conformity: Adhering to societal goals and means (e.g., education, hard work).

  2. Ritualism: Engaging in work without purposeful goals; work becomes an intrinsic objective. (Least likely to offend).

  3. Innovation: Engaging in predatory crimes (e.g., drug dealing, theft); not all participants are necessarily criminals.

  4. Retreatism: Choosing homelessness and isolation from society.

  5. Rebellion: Acts of rebellion against societal structure; generally criminal by nature.

  • Notably, one individual may embody multiple adaptations to strain.

6. Albert Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration & Gang Formation

  • Reaction Formation: A process where individuals adopt behaviors or attitudes contrary to expected norms as a form of defiance and to mitigate guilt for failing societal standards.
      - Such behaviors earn peer respect.
      - Rejection of middle-class values is a primary contributor to gang formation.
      - Typologies include:
        - Delinquent Boy: Engages in rebellion.
        - College Boy: Maintains conformity.
        - Corner Boy: Accepts ritualism.

7. Cloward & Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Association

  • Emphasizes the influence of both legal and illegal opportunities on gang formation.

  • Acknowledges Edwin Sutherland's influence.

A. Types of Gangs

  1. Criminal Gangs:
       - Form in lower-class neighborhoods with organized structures and stable adult criminal presence.
       - Known and tolerated by the conventional population.
       - Provide youth with motivations and techniques for committing crimes, primarily property or economic crimes, with a profit motive (e.g.,