Professional Education: Encyclopedia of Secondary Teaching, Law, and Development

Assessment and Measurement in Education

• Authentic Assessment Characteristics
    Authentic assessment is characterized by several key features. It requires the use of a range of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS), is criterion-referenced, and emphasizes actual performance. It is NOT typically norm-referenced, as it focuses on individual mastery rather than comparing students against each other.

• Test Validity
    - Criterion Validity: This type of validity reflects tests that correlate with acceptable and valid standards or measurements of performance.   - Predictive Validity: Used to determine how well a test can forecast future performance.

• Item Analysis Metrics
    - Discrimination Index: If a test item has a discrimination index of $.30$, standard practice in the transcript suggests it should be improved or discarded (Key indicates B: Discard it). A negative discriminating power occurs when more students from the lower-performing group get an item correct than the higher-performing group.   - Difficulty Index: An index of $.10$ indicates that the test item is highly difficult.

• Measurement and Evaluation Concepts
    - Measurement: The quantitative process of counting scores obtained by students (e.g., in an achievement test).   - Assessment for Grading: Summative assessment and Assessment of Learning are primarily used to determine the final grades of students.   - Feedback Rationale: Facilitators should immediately retrieve results and provide comments so learners can reflect on their retention and less-mastered competencies as a basis for remediation before the next learning phase.

• Effective Assessment Design
    To assess 21st-century skills like solving problems in innovative ways, a specific performance task, such as a "research capstone on developing a system to reduce traffic," is more appropriate than traditional essays or surveys.

Educational Laws and Legal Mandates

• Batas Pambansa Bilang 232 (Special Education Act)
    This law provides for the inclusion of children with special needs in all programs and concerns of the government.

• Republic Act 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act)
    - Functions related to sports competition were transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission.   - The "heart of the formal education system" under this act is defined as the school.

• Republic Act 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013)
    This act mandates inclusivity, which means welcoming and supporting all students, with and without disabilities, to learn together in the same environment. It also supports the Spiral Progression approach, where concepts are built upon from lower grades to more complex levels (e.g., Grade 6 Math).

• Professionalization and Ethics
    - RA 7836: Known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994.   - RA 9293: Refers to amendments regarding the registration and licensing of teachers and the compulsory nature of Continuing Professional Education (CPE).   - RA 10912: Mandates Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for all professionals.   - Code of Ethics: Teachers should react to parent complaints regarding school policies with sympathy and understanding. It also obliges teachers to transmit the nation's cultural and educational heritage to promote national pride, cultivate love of country, and elevate national morality.

• Magna Carta for Public School Teachers (RA 4670)
    A foundational law protecting the rights and welfare of public school teachers.

• DepEd Order 21 (Briones/Duterte Aesthetics Directive)
    Directs that all school grounds, classrooms, and walls shall be kept clean and free from unnecessary artwork, decorations, tarpaulins, and posters at all times to minimize distractions.

Human Development and Learning Theories

• Kohlberg’s Moral Development
    Teachers and parents should focus on the child’s moral reasoning to help them reach their potential. For example, a student following rules simply because "the rule says so" is at the Conventional level of moral development.

• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
    - Autonomy: Characterized by a child saying, "I do things without worrying about them."   - Epigenetic Principle: The unfolding of personality, often compared by experts to the growth of a "rose bud."

• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
    The teacher serves as a live model for students. For effective modeling to occur, four conditions must be present: (I) Attention, (II) Retention, (III) Motor Reproduction, and (IV) Motivation.

• Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
    - Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but learnable with guidance.   - Scaffolding: The guidance provided by adults or more skilled peers.

• Piaget’s Cognitive Stages
    - Pre-operational Stage: Preschoolers use images and language to represent and understand lessons.   - Sensorimotor: Early stage of physical interaction.   - Concrete Operational: Logical thinking about physical objects.

• Prenatal Development Sequence
    The correct chronological sequence of prenatal development is: Germinal $\rightarrow$ Embryo $\rightarrow$ Fetus.

• Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks
    Maintaining satisfactory performance in an occupational career is a task typical of Middle Age.

• Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
    Learners with natural ability for sounds, meanings, and structures of language are Verbal-Linguistic intelligent learners.

• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
    Emphasizes that teachers and parents should focus on the child’s environment to foster development.

Educational Philosophies

• Essentialism
    Focuses on the "3 R's" (Reading, 'Riting, 'Rithmetic) and Right Conduct. It emphasizes fundamental knowledge and skills.

• Progressivism
    Associated with John Dewey. Contemporary progressive education is science-based and virtue-driven, prioritizing flexible instruction and experiential learning.

• Existentialism
    The learner plays the main role in exploring values, meaning, and personal choices. Learning is not imposed but occurs inside the learner.

• Constructivism
    The theory that learners actively build knowledge through social interaction.

• Max Scheler’s Hierarchy of Spiritual Values
    Includes values of right and wrong, beauty against ugliness, and pure knowledge. It excludes the experience of pleasure or pain, which belongs to vital or sensory values.

Teaching Profession and 21st Century Skills

• Teacher Roles and Attributes
    - Guide from the Side: Modern teachers should act as facilitators of learning rather than solely as lecturers ("the sage on the stage").   - Multiliterate: A teacher who can understand, integrate, create, and communicate using technology and printed materials.   - Expert Power: Gained when students recognize a teacher possesses deep knowledge of their subject matter.

• PPST (Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers)
    - Novices: Newly graduated and PRC-registered teachers.   - Learning Environment: Should be safe, conducive to learning, and promote fairness.

• 21st Century Literacies
    - Digital Literacy: Implies basic literacy, media literacy, and financial/economic literacy.   - Digital Citizens: The goal for all 21st-century teachers and students.   - Eco-literacy: Teaching empathy for all forms of life and sustainability as a community practice.

• Teaching Competencies
    Research shows that subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge are positively correlated with teaching performance. A logical recommendation is that teachers must have in-depth knowledge of content and be skilled in teaching strategies.

Classroom Management and Instructional Strategies

• Surface Behavior Management
    - Signal Interference: Techniques such as clearing the throat or looking intently at an erring student to show disapproval.   - Proximity Control: Standing near a student to minimize misbehavior.   - Planned Ignoring: Not giving attention to minor misbehaviors.

• Instructional Techniques
    - Differentiated Instruction: Planning instruction by taking into account individual variations in learner readiness, interest, and knowledge.   - Direct Instruction: Effectively used for performance-based subjects like Music, Science, and Mathematics (but less so for Values Education).   - Morrisonian Technique: Used along with drill to help students achieve mastery learning of a basic topic.   - Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience: The direct purpose of learning (Direct Purposeful Experiences) is found at the bottom/base of the cone.

• Classroom Logistics
    - Seating: Movable chairs are ideal for flexible instruction like group discussions and role-playing.   - With-it-ness: The principle where a teacher is fully aware of everything happening in the classroom at all times.

Specific Disorders and Disabilities

• Alzheimer’s Disease: Characterized by loss of memory of recent and past events, confusion, and errors in judgment.

• Childhood Autism: Symptoms include mutism, self-destructive behavior, and echolalia.

• Reading Disabilities: Brain plasticity in younger children makes early identification and remediation critical. Dysfunctional family environments or trauma can also lead to reading difficulties due to emotional factors.

• Learning Disability: The inadequacy when a person fails to achieve at a level commensurate with their age despite receiving learning experiences.

Cultural and Social Issues in Education

• Heroism: Concretized in the modern era by frontliners during the pandemic, teachers, international achievers, and OFWs (I, II, III, & IV).

• Ethnocentrism: The belief that one's culture (e.g., city-bred) is superior to others (e.g., provincial), which modern multicultural education seeks to correct.

• Gender Discrimination: Restricted access to education for girls (e.g., in Afghanistan).

• Bullying: Can be avoided if teachers are careful and sensitive with words and gestures that might be offensive to students. The "new normal" has seen a rise in Cyberbullying in various forms.