Grammar Notes

Conditionals

I. Real Conditionals

• Express connections between events that are likely or factual.

Factual Conditionals (Zero Conditional)

• Express a fixed connection that exists between two events, now or always.
• Structure: if + present tense, present tense.
• Also called the 'zero conditional'.
• Example: If I wash the dishes, he dries them.
• Can also express a connection that existed before now: if + past tense, past tense.
• Example: If it rained, we went by bus. If my uncle caught fish, he always gave us some.

Predictive Conditionals (First Conditional)

• Express a likely connection between one event and another possible event.
• Structure: if + present tense, will + base form.
• Also called the 'first conditional'.
• Example: If your friends don’t arrive by five, we’ll leave without them.
• Other modals can be used in the main clause: can, be going to.
• Example: If we get there early, we can sit at the front. If he says that again, I’m going to scream!
• 'Will' is generally not used in the 'if' clause, except:
  • Emphatic form to mean 'if you insist'.
  • Example: If you will put off doing your homework, then of course you’ll get bad marks.
  • Polite invitation or request.
  • Example: If you'll just follow me, I’ll take you to your room.
• To talk about something possible but not very likely, use 'if…happen to', 'if…should', or 'if…should happen to'.
  • Example: If you happen to be in our area, drop in and see us (or If you should (happen to) be…)
  • 'If…happen to' is most common in spoken English.
• This pattern isn't typically used in unreal conditionals for highly unlikely or impossible states/events.
  • Example: If the North Sea froze in winter, you could walk from London to Oslo. (but probably not If the North Sea happened to freeze/should (happen to) freeze in winter…)

II. Unreal Conditionals

• Express imaginary or counterfactual situations.

Hypothetical Conditionals (Second Conditional)

• Express a distant and unlikely connection between one imaginary event and another imaginary event.
• Structure: if + past tense, would + base form.
• Also called the 'second conditional'.
• Example: If I got the job, I’d move to London. If you lived closer, we’d visit you more often.
• The past subjunctive ('were') can be used: If I were you, I’d go.
• Other modals can be used in the main clause: could, might.
• Example: If you came in the summer, you could stay with us and you might even get your own room.

Counterfactual Conditionals (Third Conditional)

• Express an imaginary connection between an event that never happened and another event that also never happened.
• Structure: if + past perfect, would have + past participle.
• Also called the 'third conditional'.
• Example: He didn’t call me. I didn’t help him. ⇒ If he had called me, I would have helped him.
• Other modals can be used in the main clause: might have, could have.
• Example: If she had asked us, we might have known how to fix it, or we could have tried at least.
• The contracted form 'you’d' can be 'you had' in the 'if' clause or 'you would' in the main clause.
• Example: If you’d seen him, you’d have laughed (= if you had seen him, you would have laughed).
• 'If' can be omitted when the first verb in the 'if' clause is 'should', 'were', or 'had'; the verb then goes at the start of the clause.
• Example: Should any of this cost you anything, send me the bill (= If any of this should cost…) It would be embarrassing, were she to find out the truth. (=…If she were to find out) Had they not rushed Jo to hospital, he would have died.(= If they hadn’t rushed Jo)
• In unreal conditionals, 'if …were + to infinitive' can be used instead of 'if + past simple' to talk about imaginary future situations, particularly if the situation is unlikely.
• Example: If the technology were to become available, we would be able to expand the business.
• This pattern isn't usually used with verbs such as 'belong', 'doubt', 'enjoy', 'know', 'like', 'remember', and 'understand' when they describe a state.
• Example: If I knew they were honest, I’d gladly lend them the money (not if I were to know…)
• Can be used to make a suggestion sound more polite:
• Example: Would it be too early for you if we were to meet at 5:30?
• 'If it was not for + noun phrase' (or 'if it were not for + noun phrase' formally) indicates one situation is dependent on another.
• For the past, use 'if it had not been for + noun phrase'.
• Example: If it wasn’t/weren’t for Vivan, the conference wouldn’t be going ahead. If it wasn’t/weren’t for the fact that Chloe would be offended, I wouldn’t go to the party. If it hadn’t been for Dad, I wouldn’t have gone to college.
• In formal language, 'Were it not for…' and 'Had it not been for…' can be used.
• Example: Were it not for Vivan …
• 'But for + noun' has a similar meaning, especially in formal contexts.
• Example: The village school would have been closed years ago but for the determination of teachers and parents to keep it open.

III. Mixed Conditionals

Mixed Real Conditionals

• In factual conditionals, usually use the same tense in both clauses, but sometimes mix past and present tenses.
• Example: If it snowed heavily, we didn’t go to school. If you saw the film, you know how it ends.
• Some factual conditionals describe habits in the past with 'would' ('d), similar to 'used to'.
• Example: When we were kids, if it rained a lot, we’d stay indoors. But if it was sunny, we’d often go down to the lake.
• In predictive conditionals, usually use the present simple in the 'if' clause, but can also use the past simple or present perfect.
• Example: If you studied for the test, you won’t have any problems. If they’ve finished already, we’ll give them something else to do.
• For expressing a preference in predictive conditionals, 'would' can be included with verbs of 'liking' and 'not liking' in the main clause.
• Example: If it isn’t too late, we’d like to watch the news on TV.
• 'Would rather' plus the base form of a verb can be used when expressing a preference between alternatives.
• Example: If it’s OK with you, I’d rather stay here (you suggested going somewhere else…).

Mixed Unreal Conditionals

• In hypothetical conditionals, can connect an imaginary event to a possible past event with 'would have' instead of connecting to a possible present/future event with 'would'.
• Example: If we were rich, we would offer to help those poor people who are suffering. If we were rich, we would have offered to help those poor people who were suffering.
• In counterfactual conditionals, can connect an imaginary past event to a present event/situation using 'would' instead of connecting it to another past event using 'would have'.
• Example: If your parents hadn’t met, you wouldn't have been born. If your parents hadn’t met, you wouldn’t be sitting here now.

Unless

• Means 'except under the following circumstances' or 'except if'.
• Example: He won’t come unless you ask him (he won’t come if you don’t ask him).
• More limited than 'if…not'.
• Not used in counterfactual conditionals, when there is a negative cause, or when the main clause begins with 'then'.
• Example of incorrect usage: Unless he had such a big nose, he’d be handsome. (NOT Unless he had such a big nose…)

Whether (or not)

• 'Whether' can replace 'if' when there are options (two or more).
• 'Whether or not' is used when one option is the negative of the other.
• 'Or not' can be placed at the end of the clause, especially when the sentence starts with 'whether'.
• Example: Whether we win or lose, we always enjoy playing. They are going to send relief supplies, whether or not the fighting has ended. Whether it’s raining or not, they’re determined to play golf tomorrow.

Only if, if only

• 'Only if' emphasizes a special condition.
• 'Only' can be put before the verb in the main clause.
• 'If and only if' is a more emphatic version, meaning 'on one condition only'.
• Example: These can be used only if there is an emergency. My children will only eat a breakfast cereal if they’ve seen it on TV first. You broke the law if and only if the agreement formed a legal contract.
• 'If only' is used in unreal conditionals to express wishes or regrets.
• Example: If only I had an extra copy, I’d gladly give it to you. (I wish I had an extra copy…) If only she had been wearing a seat belt, she could have survived the crash.

Even if vs Even though

• 'Even if' ('despite the possibility that') indicates a condition may exist but won't affect the situation in the main clause.
• 'Even though' = 'despite the fact that'.
• Example: We’ll have a great time even if it rains. (It may rain but it won’t stop us.) We had a great time even though it rained (It rained, but it didn’t stop us.)

IV. The Unreal Past

1-It's time

• 'It’s time/it’s high time' are followed by the past simple or continuous, though the time referred to is unreal.
• Example: It’s time we left. It’s high time I was/were going.
• 'Were' can be used for all persons of 'be', though 'was' is more common in everyday speech.

2-Wishes

1-Present

• These are wishes where you want to change a present state.
• Example: I wish I had a motorbike. I wish you weren’t leaving. I wish I was going on holiday with you.

2- Would and could

• If the verb is an event verb, the reference is to the future.
• 'Would' or 'could' are used after 'wish'.
• Example: I wish you would leave. I wish I could come on holiday with you next year.
• The use of 'would' is often used to describe an annoying habit.
• Example: I wish you wouldn’t make such a mess.

3- Past

• These are wishes referring to a past event, which cannot be changed.
• Example: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much.
• This use is common after 'if only' to express regrets.

3-I'd rather /I prefer

1-

• 'I’d rather' is followed by past tenses in the same way as wishes about the present and expresses a personal preference about actions.
• Example: I’d rather you didn’t smoke in here.
• 'I’d sooner' works in the same way.
• Both are used with normal tenses when comparing nouns or phrases.
• Example: I’d rather be a sailor than a soldier (present) I’d rather have lived in Ancient Greece than Ancient Rome (past)

2-

• 'I’d prefer' can be used as part of a conditional 2 sentence.
• Note that ‘prefer’ in this type of sentence has an object ‘it’
• Example: I’d prefer it if you didn’t go.

The Sentence: Constituents and Patterns

• A sentence is made up of parts of speech (constituents).
• Parts of speech form phrases, phrases form clauses, and clauses form sentences.
• Example: The man ate an apple and the kid ate the hamburger.
  • Clause 1: The man ate an apple
  • Clause 2: the kid ate the hamburger
  • NP: The man, an apple, the kid, the hamburger
  • VP: ate
  • Det: The, an
  • N: man, apple, kid, hamburger
  • V: ate
  • Conj: and
• Clauses are the largest constituents.
• Phrases (NP and VP) are smaller constituents.
• Words are the smallest constituents.

I. Parts of Speech

• Also known as word classes.
• Categories used to classify words.
• There are 8 parts of speech:

1. Nouns (N)

• Refer to a person, place, thing, or quality.
• Types:
  • Common nouns: table, chair
  • Proper nouns: Spain, John
  • Collective nouns: crew, team, family
  • Abstract nouns: love, beauty

2. Verbs (V)

• Designate an action, state, occurrence, or experience.
• Types:
  • Full/lexical verbs: run, teach, go
  • Primary verbs: be, have, do
  • Modal auxiliary verbs: should, may, will

3. Adjectives (Adj)

• Describe a noun or pronoun.
• Types:
  • Ordinary adjs
  • Comparative adjs
  • Superlative adjs

4. Adverbs (Adv)

• Modify a verb, adjective, adverb, phrase, or clause.
• Examples:
  • Verb: He ran fast.
  • Adjective: A very beautiful landscape.
  • Adverb: She drives very well.
  • Phrase: He looked across at me.
  • Clause: Surprisingly, they won the game.
• Often formed by adding '-ly' or '-wise' or '-wards' (suffixes).
• Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives: early.
  • I was planning to finish early today (adv)
  • She is in her early thirties (adj)
• Two different adverbs can be derived from the same adjective.
  • Late: not on time
  • Lately: recently

5. Determiners (Det.)

• Include:
  • Articles
  • Demonstratives: this, these
  • Possessives: my, his, her
  • Quantifiers: few, many, any, several

6. Prepositions (P)

• Precede a noun, pronoun, noun phrase, or -ing form.
• Express place, time, movement, etc.: in, at, in front of, under, across, above

7. Pronouns (Pro.)

• Replace nouns or determiners + nouns.
• Types:
  • Personal: I, you, him
  • Possessive: mine, yours, hers, theirs, ours
  • Reflexive: myself, yourself, themselves
  • Relative: Who, whom, whose
  • Indefinite: everyone, anyone, anything
  • Impersonal: it

8. Conjunctions (Conj.)

• Connect words, phrases, and clauses.
• Types:
  • Coordinating Conjunctions: link elements of the same nature (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or Correlatives (either, not only, neither, …)
  • Subordinating Conjunctions: link dependent clauses to independent clauses: after, because, when, since, until, as long as, if, while
• Some words can belong to more than one class.

II. Phrases

• A phrase consists of a head element and any required or optional elements.
• Types:
  • Noun Phrase: My lovely sister returned from Paris.
  • Verb Phrase: He took the wrong keys.
  • Adjective Phrase: John is extremely nervous.
  • Adverb Phrase: Time passes by very quickly.
  • Prepositional Phrase: The cat is on the table.

III. Clauses

• Sentence constituents with a subject and a verb.
• Types:
  • Independent clauses: can stand alone as sentences.
  • Dependent clauses: cannot stand alone.

1. Independent clauses

• Can be joined with coordinating conjunctions to form coordinate sentences.
• Example: Kathy is a doctor, but John is an engineer. John likes Alice, and Alice likes John. People must vote, or democracy will be jeopardized.

2. Dependent clauses

• Introduced by special words that make the clause dependent.
• Relative clauses are linked to an NP in the main clause: The woman who is a doctor saved the man from death.
• Other dependent clauses are introduced by subordinators: Susan must leave because she has a business lunch. The thieves left after they had destroyed all the documents.

IV. Sentence Types

1. Simple Sentence

• An independent clause without subordinate clauses.
• Begins with a capital letter and ends with an end mark.
• Example: I bought four apples at the farmers’ market. The farmers’ market is a classic example of producers selling directly to consumers and avoiding the attempts of agents to control the supply or to manipulate the price.

2. Compound Sentence

• Contains two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.
• Clauses are joined by a comma (,) and a conjunction (for, and, nor, but…), a semicolon (;), a semicolon and a linking adverb, or a colon (:).
• Example: I don’t know where he went, and no one has seen him since this afternoon. Harold the First fought in northern Ireland; his campaigns generally were successful. Vivian wanted to stay another week in Asheville; however, her parents refused to send her more money. You must have heard the news: we’re all getting bonuses this year!

a) Compound Sentences with Coordinators

• Independent Clause + , + Coordinators + Independent Clause
• Coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so (FANBOYS).
• The Japanese have the longest life expectancy of any other people, for their diet is extremely healthful.
• The Japanese consume a lot of rice, and they eat more fish than red meat.
• Many Americans, on the other hand, do not eat a healthy diet, nor do they get enough exercise.
• In the last twenty years, Americans have reduced their smoking, but Europeans seem to be smoking more than ever.
• Europeans should change their smoking habits, or they will risk developing lung cancer.
• Many Japanese men smoke, yet the Japanese have long life expectancies.
• The Japanese diet is becoming more westernized, so their life expectancy will probably decrease in the future.

b) Compound Sentences with Linking Adverbs (Conjunctive Adverbs)

• Independent Clause; + Conjunctive Adverb, + Independent Clause
• Relationship of the second clause to the first.
• Meaning:
  • And: Furthermore, besides, moreover, also (Additional idea)
  • But, yet: However, nonetheless, nevertheless, still (Opposite idea)
  • Or: Otherwise (Choice)
  • So: Consequently, thus, therefore, hence, accordingly (result)
• Examples:
  • Junior colleges offer preparation for the professions, business, and industry; moreover, they prepare students to transfer to a four-year college or university.
  • Many junior colleges do not provide dormitories; however, they provide housing referral services.
  • Students must take the final exam; otherwise, they will receive a grade of Incomplete.
  • Native and non-native English speakers have different needs; therefore, most schools provide separate English classes for each group.

c) Compound Sentences with Semicolon

• Independent Clause + ; + Independent Clause
• Use a semicolon when the two independent clauses are closely related and the relationship is implied.
• Examples:
  • My older brother studies laws; my younger brother studies medicine.
  • The Berlin Wall’s construction in 1961 surprised the world; its destruction in 1989 stunned it.
  • Poland was the first Eastern block country to turn away from communism; others soon followed.

3. Complex Sentences

• Contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
• One idea is more important than the other.
• Independent Clause + Dependent Clause or Dependent Clause + , + Independent Clause
• Examples:
  • If you are not good at figures, it is pointless to apply for a job in a bank.
  • When he saw the door open, the stranger entered the house.
  • Holiday resorts which are very crowded are not very pleasant.
  • That the Earth’s temperature is rising concerns scientists.
• NOTE: Dependent clauses can be adverb, adjective or noun.
  • A dependent adverb clause begins with an adverbial subordinator such as when, while, because, even though, so that, etc.
  • A dependent adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, which, whose, or a relative adverb where, when, and why.
  • A dependent noun clause begins with that, a wh-question word, whether, and if.

4. Compound-Complex Sentences

• Combination of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
• Examples:
  • After I finished high school, I wanted to go to university, but I had to work in my family’s business.
  • The word root multi, which means many, comes from Latin, and the word root poly, which also means many, comes from Greek.
  • When the power line snapped, Jack was listening to the radio, and Linda was reading in bed.

V. Verb Types

Intransitive

• Does not require an object.
• Example: He is sleeping. He is sleeping (soundly).

Transitive

• Verbs that take an object.
• Types:

1-Mono-transitive

• Takes a direct object (Od). (answers the question: What?)
• Example: I/ate/an apple. S V Od

2-Ditransitive

• Takes two objects. Usually, one is an indirect object (Oi) (answers the question: Who?) and the other is an Od.
• Example: I/ gave/ my sister / a pen S V Oi Od

3-Complex transitive

• Takes a direct object + an object complement (Co) or an adverbial (Ao)
• Example: We / consider / his offer / a fine gesture. S V Od Co, Students / should put / their calculators / on my desk. S V Od Ao

Intensive/Linking/Copular

• Can have a complement or an adverbial (Cs or As).
• The most common intensive verb is “to be”.
• Other linking verbs are “become”, “seem”, “appear”, “feel”, “grow”, “smell”, “taste”, and “sound”, among others.
• Example: Kathy/became/John’s wife S V Cs. The towel/isn’t/in the bathroom. S V As

VI. Sentence Patterns

• Sentences can be analyzed using labels which indicate the grammatical function of each element within the structure of the sentence as a unit.
• Functional labels: subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C ), and adverbial (A).
• The verb determines the acceptable complementation that has to follow it; a sentence pattern will depend on the type of verb used in the sentence.
• A simple sentence must include ONE tensed verb and may assume one of the following SEVEN syntactic structures.
• Pattern - Example - Verb Type
  • SV (A) - The sun is shining. The kids were laughing (loudly). - Intransitive
  • SVA - My office is in the next building. Sue was in town yesterday - Intensive/Linking (As) subject-related adverbial
  • SVC - This child is charming/a genius. I feel tired. Her son is a doctor. Mandy has become a beauty/beautiful. - Intensive/Copular (Cs) subject complement
  • SVO - That lecture bored me. You all know the story. Amy hurt herself - Monotransitive (Od) direct object
  • SVOO - I must send my parents an anniversary card. Mark told me his secret. His lawyer found him a new business partner. - Ditransitive (Oi - Od) indirect object/ direct object
  • SVOC - Most students have found her reasonably helpful. The manager considered the new project a failure. - Complex Transitive (Od - Co) objet complement
  • SVOA - You can put the dish on the table. The child placed six candles on the cake. Fred pushed his glass towards his wife. - Complex Transitive (Od- Ao) object-related adverbial

Word Families

I. Prefixes

• A prefix is that part of a word placed at the beginning to qualify the meaning of the root part of the word.
• For example, in the word “untrue”, the root is “true” and the prefix which limits or indicates the meaning we are to take from the root is “un”.
• The prefix can therefore be an important element of a word and can often help us to deduce the meanings of words which we may not have come across before.
• Common prefixes:
  • un - in - ir - il - im - dis - = not (unkind; unfortunate) (incomplete; inconsiderate) (irregular; irresistible) (illogical; illicit) (impossible; impersonal) (disagree; dislike)
  • mis = wrongly, badly misinterpret; misuse
  • e - ex- = out of emit; explode
  • anti = against antiseptic; antithesis
  • mono = one monologue; monotonous
  • poly = many polyglot; polygamy
  • sym- syn- = sharing with, together sympathy; symphony synchronize; syndicate
  • tele = from a distance television; telephone
  • a - ab = from arise; abdicate
  • ad = tp admit; adhesion
  • ante = before antecedent; anteroom
  • bene = well benefit; benevolence
  • bi = two bicycle; binoculars
  • con- col- com- cor = with, together converse; connect collaboration; colleague combination; communicate correspond; correlate
  • contra = against contravention; contrariness
  • de- = away from; opposite of departure; depopulate
  • in- = within inject; install
  • inter = between; from a to be international; intermediate
  • multi = many multitude; multi-racial
  • post = after postpone; postscript
  • pre = before predict; preparation
  • re = back; again return; repeat
  • sub = under; secondary submarine; substitute
  • trans = across; to a changed state transparent; translate

II. Suffixes

• A suffix is an element placed at the end of a root in order to form a particular part of speech.
• For example, if the suffix “able” is added to “change”, the adjective “changeable” is formed ; if “ize” is added to “critic”, the verb “criticize” is formed.
• Common suffixes:

1. Forming nouns

• -ness indicates a quality, a state kindness; brightness
• -dom indicates a state or condition freedom; wisdom
• -ism a quality , an action; belief heroism; racialism
• -ist person having specific activity person following system of beliefs chemist; psychologist socialist; racialist
• -logy a science or subject biology; psychology
• -age an action, a condition courage; damage
• -ance -ence a quality, state or action resistance; assistance occurrence; presence
• -er -or a person or thing that does something waiter; cooker doctor; sailor
• -ing an action, process, result; thing meeting; wedding
• -cy a state or quality supremacy; secrecy
• -ess used to make the feminine lioness; hostess
• -ion an action, process, or state condition; tension
• -ment a state, condition, quality, result enjoyment; development
• -an, -ian an expert artisan; optician
• -itry a quality, state or condition individuality; flexibility

2. Forming adjectives

• -en made of wooden; golden
• -ful full of useful; hopeful
• -ish having the qualities of belonging to a country childish; boyish English, Swedish
• -less not having useless; hopeless
• -ive having a quality, tendency active; productive
• -ic related to romantic; fantastic
• -able able to; that may cause enjoyable; objectionable
• -ible that belongs to edible; legible
• -al relating to magical; central
• -ate having a quality affectionate; intimate
• -ant -ent having a quality pleasant; important dependent; silent
• -ary connected with monetary; temporary
• -ory having a quality compulsory; contributory
• -ous having a quality poisonous; frivolous
• -y having a qualit dusty; busy

3. Forming a verb

• -ate cause to become activate; stimulate
• -en cause to become weaken; sadden
• ise-ize more like; act with qualities equalize; criticize
• fy make or become magnify; solidify

4. Forming adverbs

• -ly : beautifully; kindly
• -ally: pathetically; critically