Biology Study Guide: Questions & Answers

Levels of Organization

  • Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

Primary Growth

  • Primary growth starts in the apical meristems located at the tips of roots and shoots.

Definitions

Producer and Consumer

  • Producer: organisms that make their own food via photosynthesis (e.g., plants, algae, some bacteria).

  • Consumer: organisms that eat producers or other consumers for energy.

Thylakoids

  • A stack of thylakoids is called a Granum (plural: grana).

Function of Mitochondria

  • Mitochondria convert the chemical energy of food into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the energy currency of the cell.

Photosynthesis Overview

Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle

  • Light Reactions: occur in the thylakoids; they make ATP, NADPH, and release O2 (oxygen).

  • Calvin Cycle: occurs in the stroma; uses ATP, NADPH, and CO2 to make sugars.

Prokaryotic Cells

  • Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.

Types of Bonds

Ionic and Covalent Bonds

  • Ionic Bond: a chemical bond involving the transfer of electrons between atoms.

  • Covalent Bond: a chemical bond involving the sharing of electrons between atoms.

Basic Concepts

Atom

  • An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.

Solute and Solvent

  • Solute: the substance that is dissolved.

  • Solvent: the substance that dissolves the solute (water is considered the universal solvent).

Active Site and Substrate

  • Active Site: the specific region of an enzyme where the substrate binds.

  • Substrate: the reactant molecule that an enzyme acts on.

Plant Types

Eudicots vs Monocots

  • Eudicots:

    • Two seed leaves (cotyledons)

    • Netlike veins in leaves

    • Vascular bundles arranged in a ring

    • Flower parts in multiples of 4s or 5s

  • Monocots:

    • One seed leaf (cotyledon)

    • Parallel veins in leaves

    • Scattered vascular bundles

    • Flower parts in multiples of 3s

CAM Photosynthesis

  • CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) photosynthesis occurs primarily at night when stomata open to take in CO2, which is then used during the day when the stomata are closed.

Protein Structure

  • The building blocks of proteins are arranged in the following order:

    • Amino acids → Peptides → Polypeptides → Proteins.

Linking Light Reactions to Calvin Cycle

  • The compounds that link the light reactions with the Calvin cycle reactions are ATP and NADPH.

First Law of Thermodynamics

  • The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another.

ATP Energy Release

  • ATP releases energy when its phosphate bond is broken, resulting in ADP + P (adenosine diphosphate + inorganic phosphate).

Transportation Mechanisms

Active vs Passive Transport

  • Active Transport:

    • Requires ATP energy

    • Moves substances against their concentration gradient (from low to high concentration)

  • Passive Transport:

    • Does not require energy

    • Moves substances in accordance with their concentration gradient (from high to low concentration)

Hydrolysis of Maltose

  • When maltose undergoes hydrolysis, it splits into two glucose molecules.

Prokaryotic Domains

  • The prokaryotic domains are Bacteria and Archaea.

Stomata

  • Stomata are found on the underside of leaves.

Chlorophyll Location

  • Inside chloroplasts, chlorophyll is located in the thylakoid membranes.

Energy Types

Potential and Kinetic Energy

  • Potential Energy: energy that is stored within an object.

  • Kinetic Energy: energy that is associated with motion.

Chromosome Structure

  • Chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins, constituting chromatin.

Photosynthesis Products

  • The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen.

CAM Photosynthesis Process

  • In CAM photosynthesis, CO2 is absorbed at night, stored, and then used during the day for sugar production.

Golgi Apparatus Function

  • The function of the Golgi apparatus is to modify, store, and ship proteins and lipids that have been synthesized in the cell.

Shoot System Functions

  • The functions of the shoot system include photosynthesis, support, transport, and reproduction.

Atomic Characteristics

  • Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons, and they represent the smallest unit of an element.

Energy of Activation

  • The energy of activation is defined as the minimum energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.

RNA Nucleotide Parts

  • A nucleotide of RNA is composed of:

    • Ribose sugar

    • Phosphate group

    • Nitrogenous base (A, U, C, G)

Fish Lateral Line Function

  • The function of a fish's lateral line is to detect water movement and vibrations, aiding in navigation and predation.

Plasmodesmata Definition

  • Plasmodesmata: channels between plant cells that allow for communication and transport of materials.

Compounds and Elements

Elements and Compounds

  • Element: a pure substance consisting of only one type of atom.

  • Compound: a substance formed when two or more elements are chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.

Isotopes

  • An isotope is defined as atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons, leading to different atomic masses.

Sugar in DNA

  • The sugar found in DNA is Deoxyribose.

Ribosome Function

  • The primary function of ribosomes is to facilitate protein synthesis.

Cellulose Definition and Location

  • Cellulose: a structural polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants; it provides rigidity and strength.

Classification Levels

  • The levels of classification in biological taxonomy are:

    • Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species.

Glucose Formation

  • Glucose molecules are formed through the process of photosynthesis, specifically during the Calvin cycle.

Metabolism Definition

  • Metabolism: the sum of all chemical reactions occurring within an organism, encompassing both catabolic and anabolic reactions.

Organic Molecules

  • An example of an organic molecule could be a 5-carbon sugar, such as ribose or deoxyribose.

Water Properties

  • Water has a high heat capacity due to hydrogen bonding, which allows it to absorb heat without significant temperature changes.

Monomer to Polymer Process

  • The process through which monomers join together to form a polymer is called a dehydration reaction.

Photosynthesis Products

  • The products of photosynthesis are reiterated: Glucose and Oxygen.

Granum Definition

  • A stack of thylakoids is referred to as a Granum (plural: grana).

Enzyme Function

  • The function of an enzyme is to speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required.

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic

  • Hydrophilic: substances that attract water.

  • Hydrophobic: substances that repel water.

Definition of Entropy

  • Entropy: a measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

Calvin Cycle Overview

  • During the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis, CO2 is fixed into sugars (G3P) using ATP and NADPH generated from light reactions.

Examples of Acids

  • Examples of acids include citrus fruits and vinegar.

Domain Bacteria

  • The domain Bacteria is composed of prokaryotic cells.

Extinction Definition

  • Extinction: the complete loss of a species, representing the end of its existence.

Plant Pigments

  • Chlorophyll is not the only pigment in plants; others include carotenoids and various accessory pigments.

Science vs Technology

  • The primary goal of science is to understand nature, while the goal of technology is to apply this knowledge for practical purposes.

pH of Water

  • Pure water has a pH of 7 because the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions are equal.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

  • Prokaryotic Cells: Smaller, lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

  • Eukaryotic Cells: Larger, contain a nucleus and various organelles.

Active Site of Enzymes

  • The substrate fits into the active site of an enzyme, where the chemical reaction occurs.

Definition of Molecule and Compound

  • Molecule: a group of two or more atoms bonded together, regardless of whether they are the same or different.

  • Compound: a molecule that consists of different elements bonded together.

Classification Inclusivity

  • The most inclusive level of classification is the Domain.

Differences in Bonds

  • Ionic Bond: characterized by electron transfer between atoms.

  • Covalent Bond: characterized by electron sharing between atoms.

Hydrolysis of Maltose

  • If maltose undergoes hydrolysis, the enzyme maltase catalyzes its breakdown into two glucose molecules.

Atomic Number Definition

  • The atomic number is defined as the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.

Chloroplast Compartment

  • The innermost compartment of the chloroplast is known as the thylakoid space.

Carbon Dioxide Substitution

  • If carbon dioxide is replaced with oxygen in the process of photosynthesis, photorespiration would occur, and no sugars would be formed.

Definitions Review

  • Molecule: the smallest particle of a compound or element, consisting of two or more atoms bonded together.

  • Atom: the smallest unit of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

C3 and C4 Plants

  • C3 Plants: utilize CO2 directly in the Calvin cycle; they are prone to photorespiration.

  • C4 Plants: have adaptations that minimize photorespiration, making them more efficient in hot climates.

Repeat Energy of Activation

  • The energy of activation is the energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.

Meaning of Levels of Organization

  • The levels of biological organization refer to the hierarchical structuring: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Organism.

Solute vs Solvent

  • Solute: the substance that is dissolved in a solvent.

  • Solvent: the substance that does the dissolving.

Oxygen Production in Photosynthesis

  • Oxygen, a product of photosynthesis, is derived from the splitting of water molecules during the light reactions.

CAM Plant Environment

  • CAM plants are most successful in hot, dry environments, such as deserts, where water conservation is critical.

Plant Cell Wall Composition

  • Plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, which provides structural support.

ATP Meaning

  • ATP: stands for Adenosine Triphosphate and functions as the energy currency of the cell.

Types of Transport

Diffusion

  • Diffusion: is classified as passive transport as it does not require energy to occur.

Osmosis

  • Osmosis: is a specialized type of diffusion that specifically involves the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Sugar in DNA

  • The sugar that makes up DNA is deoxyribose.

Protein Basics

  • The basic units of proteins are structured as follows:

    • Amino acids → Dipeptides → Polypeptides → Proteins.

Energy Types Reiteration

Potential vs Kinetic Energy

  • Potential Energy: is the stored energy in an object.

  • Kinetic Energy: is the energy of motion as an object moves.

Isotope Definition Reiteration

  • Isotopes are characterized as the same element containing different numbers of neutrons.

Trace Elements

  • Examples of trace elements include iron, iodine, and fluoride.

Homeostasis Definition

  • Homeostasis: refers to the process of maintaining a stable internal environment within an organism despite changes in external conditions.

Definition of Protein

  • A protein is a polymer made of amino acids that serves various structural and functional roles in biological systems.

Definition and Examples of Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrates: are organic compounds composed of sugars and their polymers, which serve as a primary energy source and structural component.

    • Examples include glucose, starch, and cellulose.