Exam Study Guide

Overview:

• 25 MCQ

• 3-7 questions per chapter

• 1 Table + 1 Figure

• 3+ Questions from Quizzes
  

Spatial arrangement patterns:

• Random, if the position of each individual is independent of the others

• Clumped, if the quality of the habitat is patchy or the organisms are social

•Uniform, negative interactions occur among individuals, spacing them out evenly

Altruism

• Altruism—behavior that has a fitness cost to the individual exhibiting it and a fitness benefit to the recipient

• This is Paradoxical; alleles that make an individual more likely to be altruistic should be selected against

Biotic vs Abiotic Factors

• Abiotic: all the non-living elements that set the scene and influence the actions of the players (the living organisms)

• Sunlight

• Temperature

• Water

• Soil

• Air

• Rocks and Minerals

• Biotic: the living organisms that interact with each other and their abiotic environment

• Producers

• Consumers

• Decomposers

Behaviors

Instinct: Genetically programmed behavior occurs from day one

• Example: A newborn baby knows how to suckle for nourishment. A spider knows how to spin a web.
  

Fixed Action Pattern: A stimulus produces a series of actions that occur until completion( behavior will complete and action will not stop until behavior is complete.)

• Example: A greylag goose will instinctively retrieve an egg that has rolled out of its nest. Even if you remove the egg mid-retrieval, the goose will continue the motions of rolling the (nonexistent) egg back to the nest.
  

Imprinting: imprinting is any kind of phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior

• Example: Ducklings following the first moving object they see after hatching, typically their mother.
  

Associative Learning: style of learning that happens when two unrelated elements become connected in our brains through a process known as conditioning.

• Example: Classical conditioning (Pavlov's dogs learning to associate a bell with food) and operant conditioning (learning through rewards and punishments).
  

Trial & Error Learning:fundamental method of problem-solving characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success

• Example: A cat learning to navigate a maze to find food.
  

Habituation: Learning to ignore a stimuli that would produce a behavioral response

• Example: Living near a train track and eventually not noticing the sound of the trains passing by. Or the boy who cried wolf story how they ignored him after so many cries of wolf.
  

Observational Learning: Watching another organism and mimicking their behavior

• Example: A young chimpanzee learning to use tools by observing its elders.
  

Insight: Problem-solving with tools

• Example: A crow using a stick to retrieve food from a deep crevice.
  

Biomes

• Plant communities

• Determined by abiotic conditions (weather and climate)

Terrestrial Biomes

• Tundra: Treeless plains with permafrost; high latitudes and altitudes; cold, dry, windy.

• Taiga (Boreal Forest): Coniferous forests; northern hemisphere; cold winters, short summers, moderate precipitation.

• Temperate Deciduous Forest: Deciduous trees (lose leaves seasonally); mid-latitudes; warm summers, cool winters, moderate precipitation.

• Temperate Grassland: Grasses dominate; mid-latitudes; hot summers, cold winters, less rainfall than forests.

• Tropical Rainforest: Dense, diverse forests; near the equator; hot and humid year-round, high rainfall.

• Desert: Sparse vegetation; around 30° N/S latitude; extremely dry, hot days, cold nights.

• Savanna: Grasses with scattered trees; tropical regions; warm year-round, wet and dry seasons.

Aquatic Biomes

• Freshwater:

  • Lakes and Ponds: Standing bodies of freshwater; variable sizes and depths; temperatures vary with depth and season.

  • Rivers and Streams: Flowing freshwater; variable sizes and speeds; temperatures vary with location and source.

  • Wetlands: Water-saturated soil; swamps, marshes, bogs; high biodiversity; important for water filtration.

• Marine:

  • Oceans: Vast saltwater bodies; cover most of Earth; temperatures and salinity vary with depth and location.

  • Coral Reefs: Shallow, warm waters; high biodiversity; built by coral polyps; sensitive to temperature changes.

  • Estuaries: Where rivers meet oceans; brackish water (mix of fresh and salt); important nurseries for many species.

    

Life Table

• A life table summarizes the probability that an individual will survive and reproduce in any given time interval over the course of its lifetime

• Two approaches

• Track particular individual over their entire lifetime for short-lived species

• Take “snap-shot” of age structure of population at one particular time for long-lived species

Fecundity (high|low) - Pros vs Cons

• Fecundity refers to the reproductive potential of an organism; how easily and how often it can produce offspring.

• Age-specific fecundity is the average number of female offspring produced by females in each age class

• High Fecundity: Many insects, fish, and plants produce large numbers of offspring with little parental care.

Pros:

• Increased chance of offspring survival

• Rapid population growth

• Greater genetic diversity

Cons:

• Lower parental investment

• Higher competition

• Greater risk of overpopulation

• Low Fecundity: Mammals, especially large ones like elephants and whales, typically have few offspring but invest heavily in their care.

Pros:

• Higher parental investment

• Reduced competition

• More stable populations

Cons:

• Increased risk of extinction

• Slower population growth

• Lower genetic diversity

Navigation

• Piloting: is the ability to navigate using familiar landmarks. Animals create a mental map of their surroundings and use visual cues

• Ex: Many birds, especially those that migrate short distances, use piloting. Squirrels also use piloting to locate buried food
  

• Compass orientation: moving in a specific direction, often using a "biological compass" to maintain a consistent bearing. Animals can use the sun, stars, or Earth's magnetic field for orientation.

• Ex: Insects, Birds migrating long distances often use compass orientation, especially when flying over featureless landscapes like oceans. Monarch butterflies use a sun compass to navigate during their long migrations.
  

• True navigation: the ability to determine one's current location and navigate to a specific destination, even if the route is unfamiliar.

• Ex: Sea turtles use true navigation to return to the same beach where they were born to lay their eggs. Homing pigeons

Predatory Defence

• Cryptic Coloration: This is camouflage that helps an animal blend seamlessly with its surroundings. It can involve matching the colors, patterns, and even textures of the environment.

• Mimicry: One animal evolves to resemble another species(this other species is usually known to be dangerous in some way ex: poisonous).

• Escape Behavior: This involves rapid movements or agile maneuvers to evade a predator.

• Toxins: Producing or accumulating poisonous substances that deter predators. These toxins can be injected, sprayed, or released upon contact.

• Schooling: Large groups of fish or other animals swimming together. This can confuse predators, making it difficult to target a single individual, and it also increases the chances of detecting a predator.

• Armor: Hard, protective coverings that make it difficult for predators to injure the animal.

Evolutionary arms race

(ongoing struggle between interacting species, where each evolves adaptations and counter-adaptations in response to the other. It's like a constant back-and-forth, with neither side gaining a permanent advantage.)

Prey: Driven by the very real need to not be eaten, they evolve a wide array of defenses to avoid becoming prey (camouflage, speed, toxins, etc.).

Predators/Omnivores: Driven by the equally strong need to eat, they evolve strategies to overcome those defenses (better eyesight, speed, resistance to toxins, etc.).

• Red queen hypothesis-This means that even though both predator and prey are evolving, they often remain in a relative stalemate. As prey evolve better defenses, predators must evolve better offenses just to keep up. Neither side necessarily "wins" in the long run.

Figure:

Hadley Cells (Global air circulation patterns affect rainfall)

Table:

Types of interactions - summary