Attribution lecture 5

Introduction to Core Topics in Social and Individual Behaviour

Course Title: PS11420: Introduction to Core Topics in Social and Individual BehaviourFocus Area: Social Thinking - AttributionsInstructor: Dr. Trefor Aspden

What Are Attributions

Definition: Attributions are the judgments we make about the reasons behind behaviors, often categorized as causal attributions. These judgments help us understand and interpret the actions of ourselves and others in different contexts.

  • Personal Attribution: This involves attributing one's own behavior to specific, identifiable causes, reflecting self-perception and recognition of personal motives.

  • Impersonal Attribution: Conversely, this refers to the assessment of another person's behavior based on perceived external or situational causes rather than their personal traits.

Context: Attributions play a significant role not only in our daily interactions but also in broader contexts, such as political reasoning and societal events, making them vital for understanding social behavior and human psychology.

Theories and Models of Attribution

  1. Personal vs Impersonal Attributions (Heider)

  2. Internal vs External Attribution (Kelly)

  3. Correspondent Inference Model (Jones & Davis, 1965)

  4. Covariation Model (Kelly, 1973)

  5. Attribution Bias / Error

    • Fundamental Attribution Error

    • Actor-Observer Difference

    • Self-Serving Bias

    • Ultimate Attribution Error

Personal vs Impersonal Attribution

Heider and Simmel (1944): Their notable experiments illustrated how individuals interpret animations in terms of human behavior, highlighting our intrinsic tendency to attribute motives and intentions to actions, even in non-human entities.Attribution Needs: Humans have a fundamental need to explain causality, which leads to both personal (intentional) and impersonal (unintentional) attributions underpinning our understanding of complex social interactions.

Internal vs External Attribution

Kelly (1960; 1967): This framework delineates the difference between internal attributions (ascribing behavior to personal traits) and external attributions (referring to situational factors). This distinction provides insights into how individuals interpret actions over time, which informs their future expectations and interactions.

Correspondent Inference Model (Jones & Davis)

Internal Attribution: Certain conditions increase the likelihood of internal attribution:

  • Freely chosen actions: Where individuals feel they had a choice.

  • Unusual behaviors: Actions that deviate from the norm.

  • Socially deviant acts: Behaviors not aligned with societal norms.

  • Self-serving interests: Actions that particularly favor the actor.

  • High impact: When the behavior significantly affects the individual.

Covariation Model (Kelly)

Decision Factors: This model posits that attribution decisions are influenced by three main factors:

  • Consistency: The degree to which a person demonstrates the same behavior over time.

  • Distinctiveness: Whether the behavior is consistent across different contexts.

  • Consensus: How similar the behavior is among different individuals in comparable situations.

Making Attributions

Personal Attribution: Formed when there is high consistency, low distinctiveness, and low consensus in behavior.Situational Attribution: Developed when there is high consistency, high distinctiveness, and high consensus observed in behaviors.

Example: Edgar's Computer Troubles

  • Scenario: Evaluating Edgar's repeated issues with a specific computer.

    • Consistency: If Edgar struggles consistently = high; if only sometimes = low.

    • Distinctiveness: Trouble only with this computer = high; struggles with all computers = low.

    • Consensus: If many others face similar struggles = high; if only few have issues = low.

Conclusion:

  • Personal Attribution: Concludes that Edgar is inherently not good with computers due to consistent patterns.

  • Situational Attribution: Determines that the issue lies with this specific computer rather than Edgar's capabilities.

Attribution Bias

Definition: Systematic errors that influence our process of making attributions.Types of Attribution Bias:

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to underestimate situational influences while overestimating personal traits, particularly when little information is available.

  • Actor/Observer Differences: Variations in attribution based on the observer's perspective; actors tend to prioritize situational context, while observers focus on personal traits.

  • Self-Serving Bias: A natural inclination to attribute successes to personal efforts and failures to external factors, enhancing self-esteem (Ross & Nisbett, 1991).

  • Ultimate Attribution Error: A tendency to attribute in-group successes to situational factors, while attributing out-group failures to personal traits.

  • Halo Effect: An observed tendency whereby one favorable trait influences perceptions of other unrelated traits (Thorndike, 1920).

  • Horn Effect: The negation of the halo effect, where negative assessments of a single trait lead to poor evaluations in other areas.

Cultural Differences in Attribution

Individualistic Cultures (Western): Generally focus on personal uniqueness and autonomy, leading to more personal attributions.Collective Cultures (Eastern): Emphasize group identity and the interconnectedness of individuals, resulting in a greater tendency towards situational attributions (Miller, 1984; Myers et al., 2010).

Self-Serving Bias Across Cultures

  • Individualistic Cultures: Higher likelihood of displaying self-serving bias.

  • Collective Cultures: Often promote modesty and group responsibility, resulting in a lesser tendency to exhibit self-serving bias (Mezulis et al., 2004).

Cultural Differences in Perception and Attribution

Study by Masuda and Nisbett (2001): Indicates that Japanese students tend to notice background context in visual stimuli, while US students are more focused on foreground elements.

Conclusion: Collectivist cultures are likely to report more situational factors in attribution, while individualistic cultures focus on personal characteristics (Hong et al., 2000).

Attributions Summary

Key Takeaways:

  • Attributions significantly shape our perceptions of causality in behaviors.

  • Heider and Simmel: Established foundational ideas on personal vs impersonal attributions.

  • Kelly: Contributed important concepts on internal and external attributions.

  • Causal Attribution Models: These include the Correspondent Inference Model and Covariation Model, emphasizing consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus in understanding behavior.

  • Attribution Errors: Recognizing biases such as fundamental attribution error, actor-observer differences, self-serving bias, and ultimate attribution error enriches our understanding of interpersonal dynamics.

Essential Reading

  • Holt, N., et al. (2019). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. Chapter 15: Social thinking and behaviour.

  • Optional Readings:

    • Kelley & Michela (1980): Attribution theory and research.

    • Choi, Nisbett, & Norenzayan (1999): Causal attribution across cultures.

Real-World Attribution Examples

Video Links: For practical examples on gender pay gap attributions, refer to:

  • Video 1

  • Video 2