Tuesday's Lecture

The Origins and Characteristics of American Political Parties

• Founding Date: The two-party system officially began in the year $1794$.

• Catalysts for Division: Two major situations in $1794$ caused significant public anger and the eventual split into factions:

  • Jay's Treaty (referred to as the treaty of $1794$ in context).

  • The Whiskey Rebellion of $1794$.

• Evolution of Parties: Modern political parties are not the same as the original ones. The parties have undergone significant "morphing" over time, starting with the originals, moving to the Whigs, splitting the Democratic-Republicans, and shifting until the current Democratic and Republican systems were established.

• The Original Political Parties:

  • The Republican Party (Democratic-Republicans):

  • Key Figures: Thomas Jefferson (referred to as the "big redhead") and James Madison.

  • Philosophy: Power belongs to the states and the people.

  • Support Base: Supported largely in rural areas, specifically the South and the West.

  • Economic Foundation: Based on agriculture.

  • The Federalist Party:

  • Key Figures: John Adams and Alexander Hamilton (the "puppet master").

  • Philosophy: Power is centralized at the top of the hierarchy in the Federal government.

  • Support Base: Supported in urban areas, specifically the Northeast.

  • Economic Foundation: Based on manufacturing.

The Election of $1796$ and the Adams Presidency

• The Election Result: John Adams (Federalist) became President, while Thomas Jefferson (Republican) became Vice President because he received the second-highest number of votes.

• Hamilton's Manipulation: Alexander Hamilton attempted to manipulate the election results in favor of Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina, but the plan failed, resulting in a divided executive branch.

• Peaceful Transition of Power: John Adams emphasized that the transition from George Washington to his administration was unique because it occurred without a coup, murder, or the overthrow of established government. It was a peaceful transition.

• Administrative Policy: To maintain stability, Adams pledged not to use patronage (quid pro quo appointments) and promised to retain George Washington’s administrative staff.

  • The Hamilton Problem: Because Washington’s staff were loyal to Hamilton, Hamilton remained the "puppet master" behind the scenes, making it difficult for Adams to govern effectively.

The XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War with France

• Tensions with France: France was angry with the United States because of Jay’s Treaty with the British, which appeared to be a betrayal. France began seizing American ships and crews, similar to previous British actions.

• The XYZ Diplomats: Adams sent three diplomats to France to negotiate with the French Secretary of State, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (who had previously been a houseguest of Aaron Burr in the U.S.):

  • Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (C.C. Pinckney): From South Carolina, brother of Thomas Pinckney.

  • John Marshall: A Federalist from Virginia and Adams' Secretary of State (soon to be Chief Justice).

  • Elbridge Gerry: A Republican from Massachusetts and friend of Thomas Jefferson.

  • Note: Gerry is the namesake for gerrymandering due to his later manipulation of voting districts as governor.

• The Demands: Talleyrand refused to meet the diplomats directly and instead sent three agents—Pierre Bellamy, Lucien Hauteval, and Jean Conrad Hottinger (referred to by the U.S. as X, Y, and Z):

  • Demand 1: A bribe (gratuity) of approximately $\$240,000$ to $\$250,000$ just to begin negotiations.

  • Demand 2: A loan of $\$12,000,000$ from the United States to France.

• American Response: The diplomats refused, and the U.S. public slogan became: "Millions for defense, never a penny in tribute."

• The Quasi-War: An undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France occurring primarily in the Caribbean.

  • Congress did not declare war; John Adams acted on executive authority.

  • France utilized privateers (legalized pirates) via Letters of Marque.

  • The U.S. Navy officially restarted under Adams, initially with $12$ ships and later expanding.

  • The war ended with the Treaty of Mortefontaine on $09/30/1800$.

The Alien and Sedition Acts of $1798$

To silence political opposition during the Quasi-War, the Federalist-controlled government passed the following acts:

• Naturalization Act of $1798$: Increased the residency requirement for citizenship from $5$ years to $14$ years. This was targeted at Irish immigrants who were typically anti-British and supported the Republican party.

• Alien Act: Granted the President the power to deport any "dangerous" aliens without a jury trial.

• Alien Enemies Act: Granted the President the power to imprison dangerous aliens without a jury trial during a time of war.

• Sedition Act of $1798$: Made it illegal to write, print, or speak anything "false, scandalous and malicious" against the government. Punishments included a $\$5,000$ fine and up to $5$ years in jail.

  • Prosecution Examples:

  • Benjamin Bache: Grandson of Benjamin Franklin and printer of the Philadelphia Aurora. He was jailed for calling Adams "blind, bald, crippled, toothless, and querulous [cranky]." He died in prison of yellow fever at age $29$.

  • Congressman Matthew Lyon: A congressman from Vermont who was jailed for $4$ months for writing in a private letter that he wished to shove a cannon up the President.

The Doctrine of Nullification (States' Rights)

• Authorship: Thomas Jefferson (for Kentucky) and James Madison (for Virginia) wrote resolutions in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts.

• Definition: The Doctrine of Nullification states that the states have the right to nullify (declare void) any federal law or action they deem unconstitutional. This concept is also known as the Doctrine of States' Rights.

• Madison’s Argument: He argued that the First Amendment is the "guardian of every other right" and that the Alien and Sedition Acts subverted the principles of free government by uniting legislative, judicial, and executive powers in the presidency.

• Historical Usage: The doctrine has been invoked four major times in U.S. history:

  • $1798$: Regarding the Alien and Sedition Acts.

  • $1814$: Regarding the Hartford Convention.

  • $1832$: Regarding federal tariffs.

  • $1860$: Leading into the American Civil War.

The Election of $1800$ and the Death of Hamilton

• The Candidates:

  • Federalists: John Adams and C.C. Pinckney.

  • Republicans: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr (managed by James Madison).

• The Conflict: Adams signed the Treaty of Mortefontaine on $09/30/1800$, just before the election. Hamilton was furious because ending the war removed the justification for the Alien and Sedition Acts, which could have been used to silence Republican opponents during the election.

• The Outcome:

  • Jefferson and Burr tied with $73$ electoral votes each.

  • The election moved to the House of Representatives, which was controlled by Federalists.

  • After $37$ ballots, the House chose Jefferson, largely because Hamilton hated Burr more than he hated Jefferson.

• The $12^{th}$ Amendment: Resulting from this tie, the amendment separated the ballots for President and Vice President so they would be seeking specific offices rather than the second-place finisher becoming Vice President.

• The Burr-Hamilton Duel: On $07/11/1804$, Aaron Burr (the sitting Vice President) challenged Alexander Hamilton to a duel in Weehawken, New Jersey. Hamilton discharged his pistol into the air; Burr shot and mortally wounded Hamilton, who died on $07/12/1804$.

Thomas Jefferson’s Presidency and "Republican Simplicity"

Jefferson promoted a philosophy of Republican Simplicity, aiming to mirror the ideals of the people and reduce the grandeur of the presidency.

• 1. Limited Federal Government: Jefferson abolished all internal federal taxes (including the whiskey tax) and relied on moderate tariffs.

• 2. Debt Reduction: He reduced the national debt from $\$83,000,000$ in $1800$ to $\$57,000,000$ by the time he left office in $1809$.

• 3. Frugal Government: He cut extraneous spending and administrative staff. He famously walked instead of using a presidential carriage.

• 4. Smarter Military: Jefferson reduced the standing army to approximately $3,000$ troops and cut the Navy from $49$ ships to $6$ active ships. However, he established the Military Academy at West Point and the Army Corps of Engineers to ensure a professional, merit-based officer corps.

• 5. Support for Agriculture: He championed the agrarian lifestyle, which led to the Louisiana Purchase to provide more land for farmers. He remained a staunch supporter of states' rights.

Marbury v. Madison ($1803$)

• Background: The Judiciary Act of $1801$ (passed by outgoing Federalists) created $200$ new "midnight judge" positions to maintain Federalist control of the judiciary.

• The Conflict: When Jefferson took office, he ordered his Secretary of State, James Madison, not to deliver the commissions for these judges. William Marbury, who had been appointed but not received his commission, sued Madison.

• Chief Justice John Marshall: Marshall, a Federalist and cousin of Jefferson, presided over the case.

• Judicial Review: Marshall established the principle of Judicial Review, which is the power of the federal courts to declare a law or executive action unconstitutional.

• The Decision: Marshall declared part of the Judiciary Act of $1789$ unconstitutional, arguing it gave the court power (the ability to force the Secretary of State to deliver the commission) that was not granted by the Constitution. This established the Supreme Court as a co-equal branch of government.