Consequences of Industrialization (c. 1750 - c. 1900)

Consequences of Industrialization (c. 1750-c. 1900)

• Technological changes (1750-1900) led to:
  • Wider exchange of commodities.
  • Expansion of overseas empires.
  • New patterns of migration.

Imperialism

• Competition among industrializing states increased the desire for colonies.
• Some states strengthened control over existing colonies (e.g., British in India).
• Empires expanded into new regions (e.g., European colonization of Africa).
• Economic imperialism emerged in parts of Latin America and Asia.
• Europeans used Social Darwinism and religious ideologies to justify their control.
• Overall:
  • Portuguese and Spanish influence declined.
  • British, French, and Russian influence expanded.
  • The United States and Japan emerged as new empires.

Resistance to Imperialism

• Anticolonial movements developed as part of emerging nationalism.
• Resistance took various forms:
  • Rebellion.
  • Establishment of peripheral states.
  • Religiously influenced responses.
• These movements set the stage for decolonization in the 20th century.

Migration

• New transportation and economic opportunities spurred long-distance migration and urbanization.
• Coerced migration was also common (slavery, indentured servitude).
• Increased migration changed the demographics and cultures of sending and receiving societies.

Rationales for Imperialism (1750-1900)

• Ideologies contributing to imperialism:
  • Nationalism.
  • Economic wealth.
  • Religious duty.
  • Belief in biological superiority.
• Building an empire was a way to assert national identity.
• France expanded overseas territories to compensate for defeat by Prussia.
• Italy and Germany sought colonies for economic, strategic, and prestige reasons.
• Japan asserted nationalist pride through incursions into Korea.
  • Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Japan gained control of Korea and seized Taiwan.
• Racial ideologies and misuse of science:
  • Pseudoscientists claimed intellectual and physical inferiority of nonwhite races.
  • Phrenologists studied skull sizes to "prove" mental feebleness.
  • Social Darwinism used "survival of the fittest" to justify European and U.S. power.
• Cultural ideologies:
  • Colonial powers imposed their culture on colonies (language, political, educational, and religious institutions).
• Religious motives:
  • Missionaries sought to "civilize" and convert people to Christianity.
  • Missionaries combined religious and humanitarian efforts (schools, medicine, ending slave trade).
• Economic motives were aimed to maximize profits.
• East India Company (EIC) established by the English monarch, traded primarily in cotton and silk, indigo, and spices.

State Expansion (1750-1900)

• King Leopold II of Belgium oversaw the invasion and pacification of the Congo for economic exploitation.
• European powers expanded their presence in Africa with better military technology.
• Discovery of quinine reduced the danger of living in warm, humid regions.
• Suez Canal was completed in 1869, and Britain seized control of Egypt in 1882.
• Berlin Conference (1884-1885): European powers agreed on colonial boundaries in Africa.
• Boer Wars (1880-1881, 1899-1902): British fought Afrikaners for land in South Africa.
• By 1900, only Abyssinia and Liberia were unclaimed by Europeans.
• England's East India Company (EIC) controlled the entire Indian subcontinent.
• China maintained its own government, but European nations carved out spheres of influence.
• Japan industrialized rapidly and sought territorial gains in East Asia.
• Dutch East India Company (VOC) controlled the Spice Islands (Indonesia).
• French Indochina included Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
• Australia and New Zealand became settler colonies after the loss of American colonies.
• The United States expanded across the continent (Manifest Destiny) and overseas (Hawaii, Spanish-American War).
• Russia expanded into Central Asia, leading to the Great Game rivalry with Britain.

Indigenous Responses to State Expansion (1750-1900)

• Nationalist movements emerged in response to European imperialism.
• Leaders often had European-style educations and understood Enlightenment ideals.
• Serbia and Greece won independence from the Ottoman Empire after long wars.
• Cherokee Nation adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution, but were still forced off their land.
• Ghost Dance movement in the Northwestern United States aimed to restore lands and traditions of Native Americans.
• Túpac Amaru II led a rebellion against Spain in Peru.
• Sepoy Mutiny/Indian Rebellion of 1857: An Indian rebellion against British rule which spread throughout cities in northern India.
• José Rizal started a reform movement in the Philippines, leading to the Philippine Revolution and the Spanish-American War.
• Maori Wars in New Zealand: British settlement patterns alarmed the Maori, and the first of a series of Maori Wars broke out.
• Usman dan Fodio started a drive to purify Islam, creating the Sokoto Caliphate.
• Samory Touré fought against French attempts to annex West Africa.
• Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi, leading a revolt against Egyptian rule in Sudan.
• Yaa Asantewaa led a rebellion against the British in the Asante Empire (present-day Ghana).

Global Economic Development (1750-1900)

• Technological developments:
  • Railroads: Lowered transportation costs and opened up colonial markets.
  • Steamships: Transported people, mail, and goods on navigable rivers.
  • Telegraph: Transformed communications.
• Agricultural products:
  • Subsistence farmers grew cash crops instead, leading to food price increases.
  • Cattle ranches in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay produced beef for export.
  • Guano (bird droppings used as fertilizer) was mined in Peru and Chile.
• Raw materials:
  • Colonies became export economies.
  • Cotton: Britain's textile mills depended on cotton from the United States then Egypt and India.
  • Rubber: Rubber plantations were established in Southeast Asia after Charles Goodyear developed vulcanization.
  • Palm oil: Used for machinery lubrication and candle making.
  • Ivory: Prized for its beauty and durability.
  • Minerals: Included silver (Mexico), copper (Chile, Zambia, Congo), tin (Bolivia, Nigeria, Malaya, Dutch East Indies), and gold (Australia, South Africa).
  • Diamonds: Cecil Rhodes' De Beers Mining Company controlled 90% of the world's diamond production.
• Global consequences:
  • Farmers were only allowed to raise cash crops, leading to monocultures and deforestation.

Economic Imperialism (1750-1900)

• raw materials shifted away from Asia and Latin America to industrialized states.
• Economic imperialism: Foreign business interests have great economic power or influence.
• The agricultural influence and power of raw materials shifted away from Asia and Latin America to industrialized states.
• India: Supplied raw cotton to British textile mills; EIC grew opium.
• Dutch East Indies: Culture System forced farmers to grow cash crops or perform corvée labor.
• China: Opium Wars resulted from Chinese objection to opium importation; Treaty of Nanking opened ports and ceded Hong Kong to Britain.
• Spheres of influence: Nations gained exclusive trading rights in China.
• Africa: Land converted to cash crop production, leading to food shortages; slavery persisted.
• Latin America: Subjected to imperialist aggression from Europe and the United States.
• Argentina: British investment helped turn Argentina into a wealthy country.
  Brazil: Rubber industry declined after people began growing rubber in Malaysia at a lower cost.
• Central America: The United Fruit Company allied itself with landowners to influence governments.
  -Hawaii: overthrew the constitutional monarchy in 1895, hoping that the islands would be annexed by the United States.

Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World (1750-1900)

• Labor systems:
  • Indian laborers migrated to British colonies.
  • Chinese laborers migrated to California and British Malaya.
  • Japanese laborers migrated to Hawaii, Peru, and Cuba.
• Slavery diminished as labor was still desired, so imperial countries turned to other forms of coerced labor.
• Indentured Servitude- people worked for a set number of years before becoming free. Asian Contract Laborers were an early substitute for the slave trade
• Diaspora- mass emigrations from a country or region over a period of many years.
• India: Poverty drove Indians to leave to leave.
• China: The Chinese diaspora did not begin in earnest until the middle of the 19th century, with the gold rushes in California, South Australia, and western Canada.
• Ireland: Most went to the United States, but many others went to England, Scotland, Canada, or Australia, because some left for political reasons, tenant farmers were forced to evict, and others as many as 1 million people emigrated from Ireland during the Great Famine (1845-1849) that destroyed the potato crop for four years
• Italians: The main reason for the Italian diaspora was poverty.
• British citizens was made to colonize for the British government in a penal colony.

Effects of Migration (1750-1900)

• Migration led to demographic changes with long-lasting results.
• Laborers tended to be male and from particular ethnic groups.
• These migrants often formed ethnic enclaves.
• These migrants also left behind women who sometimes took on the roles formerly filled by men.
• Chinese Enclaves- the Chinese who migrated to Southeast Asia thrived under colonial rule.
• Indian Enclaves- Indians went to Mauritius, islands off the southeast coast of Africa, and Natal, a colony that is today part of South Africa, as indentured servants on sugar plantation.
• Irish Enclaves in North America - After the American Revolution, most new Irish immigrants who came to the United States settled in northern cities.
• Italians in Argentina made up almost half of the European immigrants to Argentina.
• The government and businesses were against immigration creating regulations and prejudices against people immigrating.