Comprehensive Study Notes: The Rajasthani Schools of Painting

Overview and Definition of Rajasthani Schools of Painting # The term ‘Rajasthani Schools of Painting’ refers to specific schools that flourished within the princely kingdoms and thikanas located in present-day Rajasthan and sections of Madhya Pradesh. # Geographic scope: Key centers included Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, and other such principalities. # Chronological scope: These schools were predominant between the $16^{th}$ and early $19^{th}$ centuries. # Historiography: In $1916$, scholar Anand Coomaraswamy coined the term ‘Rajput Paintings’ to categorize these works, as the rulers and patrons were primarily Rajputs. He aimed to differentiate this indigenous tradition from the Mughal School of Painting. Under Coomaraswamy's definition, the term included the Malwa school (Central India) and the Pahari Schools (mountainous regions of north-western India). # Shift in Nomenclature: The term ‘Rajput Schools’ is now considered obsolete in academic circles. Modern scholars use specific categories like ‘Rajasthani’ and ‘Pahari’ to distinguish the diverse pictorial styles. # Stylistic Diversity: Despite geographic proximity, the schools evolved unique styles characterized by execution (fine vs. bold), color preferences (brilliant vs. gentle), compositional elements (architecture, nature, and figures), narrative modes, and degrees of naturalism or mannerism. # Technical Processes and Materiality # Support Material (Waslis): Paintings were executed on waslis, which are layered, thin sheets of handmade paper glued together to achieve a specific thickness. # Sketching and Coloring: The initial outline was sketched in black or brown. Preparation included marking color notations or sample patches. # Pigments and Binding: Colors were derived from minerals and precious metals such as gold ($Au$) and silver ($Ag$). These pigments were mixed with glue, which served as the constant binding medium. # Brushes: Specialized brushes were crafted using hair from camels and squirrels. # Finishing: Upon completion, the painting was burnished with an agate stone to provide a uniform sheen and resplendence. # Workspace Dynamics: Artistic creation was a team effort. The master artist handled the overall composition and preliminary drawings. Pupils or specialists then executed specific elements such as coloring, portraiture, landscapes, architecture, or animals. The master artist returned to provide the final touches, while a scribe added verses in reserved spaces. # Thematic Content and Literary Influences # The Bhakti Movement: By the $16^{th}$ century, Vaishnavism focusing on Rama and Krishna became the dominant theme due to the Bhakti movement. Krishna, worshipped as God and the ideal lover (creator), and Radha (the human soul), represented a synthesis of sensuousness and mysticism. # Key Literary Texts: (1) Gita Govinda: Composed by Jayadeva ($12^{th}$ century court poet of Lakshmana Sen of Bengal), it means ‘Song of the Cowherd.’ It is a Sanskrit lyrical poem evoking shringara rasa to portray the love between Radha and Krishna. (2) Rasamanjari: Translates to ‘Bouquet of Delight.’ Composed by Bhanu Datta (a Maithil Brahmin in Bihar, $14^{th}$ century). This Sanskrit treatise deals with the classification of heroes (nayakas) and heroines (nayikas). Heroine categories include age (baal, taruna, and praudha), physical traits (padmini, chitrini, shankhini, hastini), and emotional states (khandita, vasaksajja, abhisarika, utka). (3) Rasikapriya: Translates to ‘The Connoisseur’s Delight.’ Composed in Brajbhasha by Keshav Das ($1591$, court poet of Raja Madhukar Shah of Orchha). It explores emotional states like love, jealousy, and separation through Radha and Krishna. (4) Kavipriya: Also by Keshav Das, written for the courtesan Rai Parbin. Its $10^{th}$ chapter, ‘Baramasa,’ describes the $12$ months of the year, illustrating daily life and seasons as a nayika tries to persuade her nayaka not to travel. (5) Bihari Satsai: Written by Bihari Lal ($c. 1662$) for Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur. It contains $700$ verses in the form of aphorisms and witticisms. # Ragamala Paintings: These are pictorial interpretations of musical modes (ragas and raginis). They are arranged in families consisting of one male raga and six female raginis. Albums usually contain $36$ or $42$ folios. The six main ragas are Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha, and Shri. # Other Themes: Romantic tales (Dhola-Maru, Sohni-Mahiwal, Mrigavat, Chaurpanchashika, Laurchanda), religious texts (Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Mahabharata, Devi Mahatmya), and secular records (darbar scenes, hunting, wars, festivals, and portraits). # The Malwa School of Painting ($1600$ – $1700$ CE) # Characteristics: Stylistically represents Hindu Rajput courts with a two-dimensional, simplistic language. It shows progression from Jain manuscripts to Chaurpanchashika style. # Location: Unlike other schools, it lacks a single precise center. It encompasses a vast territory including Mandu, Nusratgarh, and Narsyang Sahar. Many works were found in the Datia Palace collection in Bundelkhand. # Notable Works: Amaru Shataka ($1652$) and Ragamala by Madho Das ($1680$). The school is known for an absence of portraits and patron mentions, suggesting paintings were often commissioned from traveling artists. # The Mewar School of Painting # Historical Context: Considered a major early center. Early indigenous styles transitioned to refined styles after Maharana Karan Singh's contact with the Mughals. # The Chawand Ragamala ($1605$): Painted by artist Nisardin, this is the earliest dated set. It features vibrant colors and simple compositions. # The Reign of Jagat Singh I ($1628$ – $1652$): The aesthetic was reformulated by virtuoso artists Sahibdin and Manohar. Sahibdin painted the Ragamala ($1628$), Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana ($1648$), and Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana ($1652$). Manohar painted the Bal Kanda ($1649$). # Later Developments: Jagannath painted the Bihari Satsai in $1719$. Eighteenth-century painting moved toward secular court activities. # Nathdwara: A sub-school near Udaipur known for ‘pichhwais’ (large cloth backdrops for the deity Shrinathji). # The Bundi and Kota Schools # Bundi School: Flourished in the $17^{th}$ century. The earliest phase is the Chunar Ragamala ($1591$) under Bhoj Singh, painted by Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim (pupils of Mughal masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Khwaja Abddus Samad). # Bundi Patrons: Rao Chattar Sal, Rao Bhao Singh, Aniruddha Singh, Budh Singh, and Umed Singh ($1749$ – $1771$). Umed Singh's reign represented the most accomplished phase. # Bundi Aesthetics: Lush vegetation, water bodies, and a specific feminine type (petite, round faces, sharp noses, pinched waists). # Kota School: Split from Bundi in $1625$ when Jahangir awarded part of the empire to Madhu Singh. It became distinct around $1660$ under Jagat Singh. # Kota Specialties: Obsession with animal chases and hunting expeditions. Umed Singh ($1770$ – $1819$) was particularly involved in hunting. Kota artists were pioneers in rendering landscape as the primary subject. Style features ‘double-lid eyes’ and spontaneous, calligraphic execution. # The Bikaner School of Painting # Origins: Founded by Rao Bika Rathore in $1488$. Developed a language influenced by Mughal elegance and a subdued palette. # Mandi System: Studios managed by master artists like Ruknuddin, Ibrahim, and Nathu. The court archivist inscribed names and dates post-completion. # Terminology: ‘Gudarayi’ (to lift/provide finishing touches), ‘Marammat’ (repair), and ‘Nakals’ (copies). Artists were called ‘Ustas’ or ‘Ustad.’ # Notable Artists: Ustad Ali Raza (hired by Karan Singh in $1650$) and Ruknuddin (under Anup Singh). Ibrahim’s work is characterized by a misty, dreamlike quality and dainty figures. # The Kishangarh School of Painting # Style: Known for extreme mannerism and a distinct facial type: arched eyebrows, lotus petal eyes tinged with pink, drooping eyelids, sharp noses, and thin lips. # Patronage: Founded in $1609$ by Kishan Singh. Raj Singh established a preference for panoramic landscapes and green colors. # Sawant Singh (Nagari Das): He was a poet-ruler who abdicated in $1757$. His muse was ‘Bani Thani,’ an elegant singer and dancer. # Artist Nihal Chand: Active ($1735$ – $1757$). He depicted Sawant Singh and Bani Thani as Krishna and Radha in vast landscape settings. # The Jodhpur School of Painting # Early Phase: Influenced by Mughal aesthetics in portraits but retained a folkish style. The Pali Ragamala ($1623$) by artist Virji is a key early work. # Patronage: Maharaja Jaswant Singh ($1638$ – $1678$) started a trend of documentary portraiture. Ajit Singh ($1679$ – $1724$) celebrated the heroism of Veer Durgadas Rathore. # Man Singh ($1803$ – $1843$): Follower of the Nath Sampradaya. Produced sets like Ramayana ($1804$) and Nath Charita ($1824$). Jodhpur Ramayana paintings often used the local city architecture as a stand-in for Ayodhya. # Jaipur School of Painting # Amer Period: Rulers like Bharmal and Bhagwant Das maintained close ties with Mughals (Akbar). Aesthetics were heavily influenced by this loyalty. # Shift to Jaipur: Sawai Jai Singh ($1699$ – $1743$) established Jaipur in $1727$. He reorganized the ‘Suratkhana’ (the studio). Artists included Sahibram (portraitist) and Muhammad Shah. # Sawai Pratap Singh ($1779$ – $1803$): Under his rule, Mughal influence receded in favor of a reformulated indigenous style. He employed around $50$ artists. Jaipur is known for large formats and life-size portraits. # Detailed Case Studies of Specific Paintings # Bhagvata Purana (Malwa, $1680$ – $1690$): Illustrates the killing of Shakatasura. Uses compartmentalized space for continuous narration. Scenes include celebrations in the house of Nanda, donation of calves to Brahmins, food preparation, and Krishna liberating the cart demon with a kick. # Maru Ragini (Mewar, $1628$): Part of a Ragamala set by Sahibdin. Inscription: ‘samvat 1685 varshe aso vad 9 Rana Shri Jagat Singh Rajen Udaipur madhe likhitam chitara Sahivdin bachan hara ne ram ram.’ Depicts the folk heroes Dhola and Maru escaping on a camel. # Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara (Bundi, $1680$): Painted by Tulchi Ram. Represents a horse in motion by negating the foreground, creating a sense of extreme speed through an equestrian narrative. # Chaugan Players (Jodhpur, $1810$): Painted by Dana. Depicts princesses playing Polo. Shows a mix of Mughal (figures), Deccani (horses), and Bundi/Kishangarh (facial features) styles against a flat green background. # Krishna Swinging and Radha in Sad Mood (Bikaner, $1683$): By Nuruddin. Uses a central mound to divide sections. Depicts Krishna on a swing with a gopi in the upper palatial section and a jilted Radha in the lower pastoral section, with a sakhi acting as messenger. # Bani Thani (Kishangarh): Based on Sawant Singh’s poem ‘Bihari Jas Chandrika.’ Features unique facial traits: deeply curved eyes, serpentine hair curls, and a pronounced chin. # Rama meets Family at Chitrakut (Mewar, $1740$ – $1750$): By Guman. A classic continuous narrative showing Bharat, the mothers, and sages visiting Rama. Characters are labeled. The narrative moves from the mothers approaching dwellings to Rama collapsing upon hearing of Dashratha’s death.