LAB 2 Exam
LAB 7: GENETICS
Types of Dominance
Complete Dominance:
A genetic situation where one allele completely masks the effect of another allele in the phenotype of a heterozygote.
Incomplete Dominance:
A genetic mechanism in which neither allele is completely dominant, resulting in a phenotype that is a blend of the two alleles in the heterozygote.
Codominance:
Both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed, resulting in offspring with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor recessive.
Karyotypes
For the following karyotype, list the chromosomal sex and whether there are any issues with the chromosome number.
Chromosomal Sex: (Detail findings here based on provided karyotypes)
Issues: (Detail any abnormalities, such as aneuploidy, e.g., Turner syndrome (45,X) or Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY)).
Blood Types
Use the blood typing card to determine the blood type of the individual.
Anti-A and Anti-B: Testing reagents.
Phenotypes and Genotypes:
List all possible phenotypes and genotypes based on ABO blood group system.
Determine the possible offspring blood types for the following crosses:
Crosses: List specific cross examples and possible outcomes.
Genotypes for parents involved in the genetic cross.
List all possible phenotypes: (Document the outcomes).
Fruit Fly Genetics
Determine the dominant trait from the genetic cross shown.
Assign a letter to the wing phenotype and the wingless phenotype using the symbol A/a.
What is the genotype of the F1 flies? (Detail findings).
LAB 8: DNA
DNA Replication
Enzyme Used: DNA polymerase.
Direction New DNA is made: 5’ to 3’ direction.
Location of Replication: Nucleus (in eukaryotic cells).
Complementary DNA Strand for the sequence 5’ ATA GGC TAC GCA 3’: 3’ TAT CCG ATG CGT 5’.
DNA Extraction
Reasons for Processes:
Why keep everything cold: To prevent degradation of DNA by enzymes.
Why use soap: To lyse cell membranes, releasing DNA.
Why add meat tenderizer: To break down proteins that may bind to DNA.
Why use rubbing alcohol: To precipitate the DNA out of solution, allowing for visualization.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Stand for: Polymerase Chain Reaction.
Purpose of PCR: To amplify specific DNA sequences.
Use of Taq Polymerase: This enzyme is heat-stable, allowing it to withstand the denaturation phase of PCR.
Strands from 2 copies after 6 cycles: strands.
Gel Electrophoresis
Purpose: To separate DNA fragments based on size for analysis.
Sequencing requirement: No, DNA does not need to be sequenced to differentiate individuals using size analysis from the gel.
Charge of DNA: Negative due to the phosphate backbone.
Electrode Attraction: DNA is attracted to the positive electrode (anode).
LAB 9: EVOLUTION
Natural Selection
Darwin/Grants Research Islands: Galapagos Islands.
Organisms Studied by the Grants: Finches, focusing on variances in beak size.
Major Findings: Correlation between beak size with food availability; adaptation occurred over generations based on environmental pressures.
Birds and Plants
Most Successful Beak for Survival: Determined by environmental conditions and available food sources.
Least Successful Beak: Correlates with decreased abundance of specific food sources.
Abundance of Plants Next Year: Relies on seed consumption rates.
Daphnia Reproductive Strategies
Parthenogenesis vs. Sexual Reproduction: Explains reproductive modes based on environmental conditions. Parthenogenesis occurs in stable environments, while sexual reproduction is used under variable conditions.
Environmental Conditions Impacting Daphnia: Temperature, food availability, and crowding.
LAB 10: BACTERIA
Characteristics of Prokaryotes
Cellular Structure: Unicellular organisms lacking a nucleus.
Differences from Eukaryotes: Lack of membrane-bound organelles; smaller size; circular DNA.
Bacterial Cell Types: Coccus, Bacillus, Spirillum.
Bacterial Cell Wall Composition
Composition: Peptidoglycan for Gram-positive; thinner peptidoglycan with an outer membrane for Gram-negative.
Diagnosing Bacterial Infections
Gonorrhea: Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Food Poisoning: Often due to Escherichia coli.
Syphilis: Caused by Treponema pallidum.
Cellulitis: Infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus.
Anthrax: Caused by Bacillus anthracis.
LAB 11: PLANTS
Kingdom Plantae
Alternation of Generations: A life cycle that alternates between haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) stages.
Ploidy Level of Gametophyte: Haploid (n).
Ploidy Level of Sporophyte: Diploid (2n).
Terrestrial Adaptations**:
Adaptations for survival on land include: waxy cuticle, vascular tissue for nutrient transport, roots for anchorage and water uptake, and reproductive structures for gamete protection.
Plant Divisions**:
Four Major Divisions: Bryophytes, Ferns, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms, with classification based on reproductive strategy and structure.
Monocots vs. Dicots
Key Differences: Based on cotyledons, leaf venation, flower structure, and root systems.
LAB 12: ANIMALS
Symmetry Definitions
Asymmetrical: No symmetry; e.g., sponges.
Radial Symmetry: Symmetrical around a central axis; e.g., jellyfish.
Bilateral Symmetry: Symmetrical on a left and right side; e.g., humans.
Tissues and Body Cavities
Diploblasts: Organisms with two tissue layers.
Triploblasts: Organisms with three tissue layers.
Coelomates: Organisms with a body cavity completely lined by mesoderm.Domain
The highest taxonomic rank.
Eukarya – organisms with eukaryotic cells (includes all animals, plants, fungi, protists)
Kingdom
Within domain Eukarya, animals belong to:
Animalia – multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that lack cell walls
Phyla (examples from Animalia)
Here are some major animal phyla:
Chordata – animals with a notochord (e.g., mammals, birds, fish)
Arthropoda – exoskeleton, segmented body (e.g., insects, spiders, crustaceans)
Mollusca – soft-bodied, often with shells (e.g., snails, octopus)
Annelida – segmented worms (e.g., earthworms, leeches)
Cnidaria – radial symmetry, stinging cells (e.g., jellyfish, corals)
Echinodermata – spiny-skinned marine animals (e.g., starfish, sea urchins)
Platyhelminthes – flatworms
Porifera – sponges
Nematoda – roundworms
Classes (examples within some phyla)
Within Phylum Chordata
Mammalia – mammals (humans, dogs)
Aves – birds (eagles, chickens)
Reptilia – reptiles (snakes, lizards)
Amphibia – amphibians (frogs, salamanders)
Actinopterygii – ray-finned fish (salmon, goldfish)
Within Phylum Arthropoda
Insecta – insects (beetles, butterflies)
Arachnida – spiders, scorpions
Crustacea – crabs, lobsters
Chilopoda – centipedes
Diplopoda – millipedes
Within Phylum Mollusca
Gastropoda – snails, slugs
Cephalopoda – octopus, squid
Bivalvia – clams, oysters1. Animalia
Multicellular
Heterotrophic (must eat food)
No cell walls
Examples: humans, dogs, insects
Kingdoms of Life
1. Animalia
Multicellular
Heterotrophic (must eat food)
No cell walls
Examples: humans, dogs, insects
2. Plantae
Multicellular
Autotrophic (photosynthesis)
Cell walls made of cellulose
Examples: trees, grass, flowers
3. Fungi
Mostly multicellular
Absorb nutrients from other materials
Cell walls made of chitin
Examples: mushrooms, molds, yeast
4. Against
Mostly unicellular
Very diverse group (not plants, animals, or fungi)
Examples: algae, amoeba, paramecium
5. Archaea (Archaebacteria)
Unicellular
Prokaryotic (no nucleus)
Often live in extreme environments
Examples: methanogens, halophiles
6. Bacteria (Eubacteria)
And
Prokaryotic
Found everywhere
Examples:E. coli, Streptococcus
LAB 13: ECOLOGY
Producer and Consumer Definitions
Producer: Organisms that produce their own food, typically through photosynthesis.
Consumer: Organisms that consume other organisms for energy.
Primary vs. Secondary Consumers: Primary consume producers; secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
Decomposer: Organisms that break down dead organic material, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Food Webs**:
Understand the relationships among different organisms in an ecosystem and the direction of energy flow through various trophic levels.
Community Ecology**:
Interspecies Interactions: Competition, mutualism (both benefit), predation, herbivory, parasitism (one benefits, one harmed), commensalism (one benefits, other unharmed).
Population Size Estimation**:
Example problem provided involves using the capture-recapture method (N = (M*C)/R) for estimating population size.
UNKNOWNS AND IDENTIFICATION
All identification exercises involve recognizing domains, kingdoms, phylum, characteristics and defining features, especially in relation to food acquisition and movement mechanisms.