Virtue Ethics

Aristotle

  • World view – teleology, “nature does nothing in vain,” “everything is arranged in the best possible way”

  • Empirical approach: relied on observation of the natural world to understand human nature and the good life. He believed that we can observe the world and discover truths about how things work, especially human beings and their behaviors.

  • Teleology

    • Natural world

    • Human beings (and parts thereof)  

    • Artifacts: distinction between natural beings (which have an internal telos) and artifacts (man-made objects which are directed by human purpose). However, he still views the maker’s intention as guiding artifacts towards their proper function.

  • Theory of value (functional account of the good) – x is good if it is fulfilling its proper function excellently

  • Nature of humans

    • Social and political animals: Humans are naturally inclined to live in society and are political by nature. Aristotle believes that humans reach their full potential through social interactions and cooperation.

    • With reason + emotions, “rational part of the soul”: Humans are unique because of their combination of reason and emotions. Reason is the guiding principle, but emotions are also important, and the balance of these forms the rational part of the soul.

    • Infinite potential: Humans have infinite potential to develop and improve through the cultivation of virtues and proper function.

  • Proper function of humans – to reason

  • Telos of humans --- eudaimonia (flourishing, happiness) 

  • “the good as that at which all things aim”: Everything in nature, including humans, has a goal or purpose (telos), and for humans, this goal is eudaimonia.

  • Political science as the most divine science: involves creating conditions in society that allow individuals to flourish.

  • Virtues 

    • Virtues as character traits: not individual actions but qualities that shape our character. They allow humans to fulfill their purpose of reasoning excellently.

    • Doctrine of the mean – deficiency, virtue, excess: Virtue lies between deficiency and excess. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess). Virtues represent balance and moderation.

    • Learned through a) practice and b) role models

      • Hence, the importance of a virtuous society

    • Determined through practical reason (phronesis) – i.e., engaging in the human function excellently 

    • Practiced until habitual – a part of one’s character

    • And are pleasant

  • Virtue ethics as about being (character) rather than doing (actions)

  • Role of choice and voluntariness

    • Phronesis: Phronesis is the ability to deliberate well about what is good for oneself and the community, and it involves choosing the right course of action in varying situations. Good deliberation, or "happy guessing," is an important part of living a virtuous life.

    • Good deliberation (vs. “happy guessing): Practical wisdom involves making well-thought-out decisions. It's not about guesswork but using reason to determine the best path in life

  • Eudaimonia, happiness, flourishing, thriving, etc

    • “activity of the soul in accordance with virtue”

    • Possible only in society

    • Attained by living actively, fully, developing talents and potential, and can only do all this with the virtues

  • Pleasure and happiness 

    • Using one’s reason excellently, behaving virtuously, etc. 

      • bring pleasure and contribute to overall happiness

  • Connection between morality, happiness, character, and reason (you should be able to put the four terms together)

    • The good life involves the development of a virtuous character, which is shaped by reason. The virtuous use of reason leads to happiness (eudaimonia), and through this flourishing, we fulfill our nature and achieve true morality.


MacIntyre, After Virtue


  • Problem of disarray in virtues – different lists from different times, same trait sometimes a virtue, sometimes a vice, etc.

    • MacIntyre highlights that there is a problem in the modern world when it comes to understanding virtues. Virtues once held as central to moral life vary widely across different cultures, historical periods, and philosophical systems.

      • Different times and places have had different lists of virtues, and sometimes the same trait is considered a virtue in one context and a vice in another. This inconsistency presents a problem for those seeking a coherent account of virtue.

      • For instance, what is considered "bravery" or "honesty" can change over time or in different social or cultural settings. This leads to confusion, making it difficult to know what virtues we should cultivate.

  • Core Concept of the virtue: a character trait that is necessary to achieve excellence in particular practices. These virtues are part of a broader framework that enables individuals to thrive in specific social and cooperative contexts.

  • Practices – complex, cooperative activities governed by standards of excellence through which internal goods are realized and human excellence extended (be able to unpack this) 

    • Example: In a practice like teaching, the internal goods could be the joy of imparting knowledge and the satisfaction of seeing a student grow. The external goods might be a salary or professional accolades, which are secondary to the practice itself.

    • Human Excellence Extended: MacIntyre argues that the goal of a practice is not merely personal achievement, but the extension of human excellence through cooperation. Practices are communal endeavors where individuals not only work on their own excellence but contribute to a broader collective achievement.

  • Internal vs. external goods

    • Internal Goods: These are the rewards or goods that are intrinsic to the practice itself. They are not externally measurable or exchangeable but are inherent in doing the practice well. For example, in a sport like chess, the internal good might be the satisfaction of mastering the game or deepening one's understanding of strategy.

    • External Goods: In contrast, external goods are those rewards that come from outside the practice—money, fame, recognition, or status. These are not part of the practice itself, but they may be associated with success in the practice.

  • Virtues – character traits necessary in order to achieve the internal goods 

  • In relation to Aristotle

    • “saves” outdated concept of virtue ethics

      • virtue ethics was central to moral thinking in pre-modern times, but has been largely displaced by the fragmented, individualistic ethical systems of the modern age.

    • “Shrinks” the single human telos (in A) down to a multitude of teli  in the practices

      • While Aristotle’s virtue ethics revolves around the idea of a single telos (end or goal) of human life—eudaimonia—MacIntyre “shrinks” this telos into many smaller teli (plural of telos) that exist within particular practices. Each practice has its own end goal or purpose, and achieving excellence within these practices is what allows individuals to flourish.

    • Maintains the notion that the virtues are a) character traits that b) are the only way you’ll be able to attain excellence

      • Character Traits: Like Aristotle, MacIntyre maintains that virtues are character traits. They are not merely actions or isolated choices but enduring aspects of a person’s character that define who they are and how they act within a practice.

      • Necessary for Excellence: The virtues are the only way to achieve excellence in a given practice. They are not optional qualities but essential traits that enable individuals to engage with practices at a high level and to realize the internal goods of the practice.