General Psychology

Part 1: History and Perspectives of Psychology

1.1 Foundations and Early Schools

Psychology

  • Definition: Scientific study of the mind and behavior

  • Transitioned from philosophy to science in the late 19th century

Structuralism

  • Founder: Wilhelm Wundt

  • First lab: 1879 in Leipzig, Germany

  • Goal: Identify the structure of the mind

  • Method: Introspection (self-reporting thoughts and feelings)

Functionalism

  • Founder: William James

  • Influenced by Darwinism

  • Goal: Understand how mental processes help organisms adapt and survive

  • Key idea: Consciousness is a continuous flow

Gestalt Psychology

  • Founders: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler

  • Focus: Perception of patterns and wholes

  • Motto: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Founder: Sigmund Freud

  • Focus: Unconscious mind and early childhood

  • Key idea: Repressed experiences influence adult behavior

1.2 Behaviorism and Humanism

Behaviorism

  • Focuses on observable and measurable behavior

  • Rejects studying internal mental processes

Key Figures

  • Ivan Pavlov

    • Classical conditioning

    • Learning through association

  • John B. Watson

    • Founder of behaviorism

    • Psychology must be objective

  • B.F. Skinner

    • Operant conditioning

    • Learning through reinforcement and punishment

Humanism

  • Known as the third force

  • Emphasizes free will and human potential

Key Figures

  • Abraham Maslow

    • Hierarchy of Needs

    • The goal is self-actualization

  • Carl Rogers

    • Client-centered therapy

    • Empathy, genuineness, unconditional positive regard

1.3 Cognitive Revolution and Modern Eras

Cognitive Revolution

  • Began in the 1950s

  • Renewed focus on memory, thinking, and language

Modern Branches

  • Biopsychology

    • Biological basis of behavior

  • Developmental Psychology

    • Changes across the lifespan

    • Jean Piaget

  • Social Psychology

    • Influence of others on behavior

Part 2: Psychological Research Methods

2.1 The Process of Research

Deductive Reasoning

  • Theory → hypothesis → testing

Inductive Reasoning

  • Observations → general theory

Scientific Method

  • Form a theory

  • Create a testable hypothesis

  • Conduct research

  • Analyze data

  • Revise or discard the theory

2.2 Research Designs

Case Study

  • In-depth study of one individual

  • Detailed but hard to generalize

Naturalistic Observation

  • Observing behavior in real settings

  • Risk: Observer bias

Surveys

  • Questionnaires or interviews

  • Large samples

  • Depends on honesty

Archival Research

  • Uses existing records or data

Developmental Designs

  • Cross sectional

    • Different groups at one time

  • Longitudinal

    • Same group over time

    • Risk: Attrition

2.3 Correlation and Experiments

Correlation

  • Measures the relationship between variables

  • r ranges from -1.00 to +1.00

  • Positive correlation

    • Variables move in the same direction

  • Negative correlation

    • Variables move in opposite directions

Important

  • Correlation does not prove causation

Experimental Method

  • The only way to show cause and effect

Key Terms

  • Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated cause

  • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured effect

  • Experimental Group: Receives treatment

  • Control Group: Receives placebo

  • Double blind study: No one knows the group assignments

2.4 Reliability, Validity, and Ethics

Reliability

  • Consistency of results

Validity

  • Accuracy of measurement

Ethics

  • IRB: Reviews research proposals

  • Informed consent: Participants agree knowingly

  • Deception: Allowed only when necessary

  • Debriefing: Explain the true purpose after the study

Part 3: Biopsychology

3.1 Foundations of Biopsychology

Biopsychology

  • How biology influences behavior

Evolutionary Psychology

  • Behaviors evolve to improve survival

Natural Selection

  • Helpful traits are passed down

Genetics

  • Genotype: Genetic makeup

  • Phenotype: Observable traits

  • Epigenetics: Environment affects gene expression

3.2 Nervous System and Communication

Neurons

  • Cells that transmit information

Parts of a Neuron

  • Dendrites: Receive signals

  • Soma: Cell body

  • Axon: Sends signals

Action Potential

  • Electrical signal

  • All or none response

Neurotransmitters

  • Dopamine: Mood and learning

  • Serotonin: Mood and sleep

  • Acetylcholine: Memory and muscle movement

Nervous System Divisions

  • CNS: Brain and spinal cord

  • PNS: Somatic and autonomic

Autonomic System

  • Sympathetic: Fight or flight

  • Parasympathetic: Rest and digest

3.3 Brain and Endocrine System

Brain Lobes

  • Frontal: Decision-making, movement, speech

  • Parietal: Touch and temperature

  • Temporal: Hearing, memory, language

  • Occipital: Vision

Endocrine System

  • Uses hormones

Pituitary Gland

  • Master gland

Part 4: Sensation and Perception

4.1 Basic Principles

Sensation

  • Detecting sensory input

Transduction

  • Converting physical energy into neural signals

Thresholds

  • Absolute threshold

    • Detected 50 percent of the time

  • Difference threshold

    • Smallest noticeable difference

Processing

  • Bottom up: Starts with sensory data

  • Top down: Influenced by expectations

4.2 The Five Senses

Vision

  • Light enters cornea → pupil → lens → retina

  • Rods: Low light movement

  • Cones: Color detail

Hearing

  • Sound waves reach the cochlea

  • Hair cells trigger neural signals

Taste and Smell

  • Chemical senses

  • Taste includes sweet, salt, umami, and bitter

Body Senses

  • Vestibular: Balance

  • Proprioception: Body position

4.3 Gestalt Principles of Perception

Core Idea

  • Perception is more than individual parts

Principles

  • Figure ground

  • Proximity

  • Similarity

  • Closure

Part 5: Learning

5.1 What Is Learning

Learning

  • Change in behavior due to experience

Associative Learning

  • Linking events or stimuli

Unlearned Behaviors

  • Reflexes: Automatic responses

  • Instincts: Inborn patterns

5.2 Classical Conditioning

Founder

  • Ivan Pavlov

Key Components

  • UCS: Naturally triggers a response

  • UCR: Natural response

  • NS: No response at first

  • CS: Learned trigger

  • CR: Learned response

Processes

  • Acquisition

  • Extinction

  • Spontaneous recovery

  • Generalization

  • Discrimination

5.3 Operant Conditioning

Founder

  • B.F. Skinner

Reinforcement

  • Positive: Add something good

  • Negative: Remove something bad

Punishment

  • Positive: Add something bad

  • Negative: Remove something good

Reinforcement Schedules

  • Fixed ratio

  • Variable ratio

  • Fixed interval

  • Variable interval

5.4 Observational Learning

Founder

  • Albert Bandura

Modeling Steps

  • Attention

  • Retention

  • Reproduction

  • Motivation

Vicarious Learning

  • Reinforcement: Copy rewarded behavior

  • Punishment: Avoid punished behavior

Bobo Doll Experiment

  • Children imitate observed behavior