Operant Conditioning

Transition from classical conditioning to operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (e.g., Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Unconditioned Stimulus (US)).
Operant conditioning involves organisms associating actions with consequences.

Operant Behaviour:
- Behaviour that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Reinforcement:
- Definition: Any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows.

Edward Thorndike:
- Developed the law of effect, stating that:
- Behaviours followed by favourable consequences are more likely to be repeated.
- Behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences are less likely to be repeated.
- Experimented with cats in puzzle boxes to illustrate these principles.
- Cats improved performance with successive trials leading to quicker escapes for the reward (fish).
- Behaviour increased due to positive reinforcement from the reward.
B.F. Skinner:
- Expanded on Thorndike's work with the operant chamber (Skinner box).
- Introduced devices to record rate of behaviour (e.g., bar pressing in response to stimuli).
- Included features such as lights and tones to influence behaviour outcomes.

Shaping:
- Gradual guidance of behaviour towards closer approximations of a desired behaviour using reinforcers.
- Illustrates understanding of non-verbal organisms' perception (discriminative stimulus).

Positive Reinforcement:
- Increases behaviour by presenting a desirable stimulus after a response.
- Example: Petting a dog for coming when called.
Negative Reinforcement:
- Increases behaviours by removing an aversive stimulus.
- Example: Taking painkillers to relieve a headache, thus reinforcing the behaviour of taking medication.

Primary Reinforcers:
- Unlearned innate stimuli (e.g., food causing salivation in dogs).
Conditioned (or Secondary) Reinforcers:
- Gain power through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money being associated with happiness).
Immediate Reinforcers:
- Occur immediately after the behaviour.
Delayed Reinforcers:
- Involve a time delay between the response and reward (e.g., monthly salary).
- Example: Marshmallow Test indicating delayed gratification correlating with future achievement.

Definition:
- The pattern defining how often a desired response is reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement:
- Reinforcement occurs every time the behaviour is exhibited.
Partial (or Intermittent) Reinforcement:
- Reinforcement occurs only some of the time, leading to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed Ratio Schedule:
- Reinforces a response after a specific number of responses (e.g., coffee card).
Fixed Interval Schedule:
- Reinforces a response after a set period of time (e.g., discounts on certain days).
Variable Ratio Schedule:
- Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).
Variable Interval Schedule:
- Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., checking phone for messages).

Skinner's experiments with pigeons revealed response patterns to reinforcement schedules:
- Ratio schedules yield a higher response rate than interval schedules;
- Unpredictable schedules produce more consistent responses than predictable schedules.

Punishment:
- Introduces an undesirable consequence or withdraws a desired stimulus to decrease the frequency of behaviour.
Positive Punishment:
- Adds an aversive consequence after undesired behaviour (e.g., spanking).
Negative Punishment:
- Removes a desired stimulus following undesired behaviour (e.g., losing screen time).

Emphasize positive reinforcement, clear communication of expectations, and replacing unwanted behaviours with positive actions.
Focus on what is right in behaviour to promote a positive moral framework.

To extinguish undesirable behaviour and reinforce desired behaviour, set measurable goals, monitor progress, and transition from external to internal rewards.
Behaviour shaping guided by operant conditioning principles helps in personal development.