China and Japan: 1912–1945 Study Notes

Learning Objectives and Historical Overview (1912–1945)

• Chinese Nationalism: Examining the origins and growth of nationalism between 1912 and 1945.

• Political Parties: Understanding the rise and implications of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1912 to 1927.

• KMT-CCP Rivalry: Analyzing the causes and consequences of the increasing rivalry between the KMT and CCP between 1927 and 1945.

• Democracy in Japan: Assessing the failure of democratic systems in Japan and the subsequent implications for China and international relations.

Chronology of Key Events: 1911–1945

• October 1911: Revolution in China (Xinhai Revolution).

• January 1912: Abdication of the last Chinese emperor (Pu Yi).

• August 1912: Establishment of the Kuomintang (KMT).

• July 1914–1918: First World War.

• January 1915: Japan issues the Twenty-One Demands to China.

• May 1919: Beginning of the May Fourth Movement in China.

• July 1921: Formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

• 1921–1922: Washington Naval Conference.

• March 1925: Death of Sun Yat-sen.

• July 1926: Chiang Kai-shek begins the Northern March (Northern Expedition).

• March 1927: Beginning of the Kuomintang's Purification Movement.

• December 1928: Kuomintang forces take control of Peking.

• September 1931: Japanese invasion of Manchuria.

• November 1931: Mao Tse-tung elected Chairman of the Soviet Republic of China.

• February 1933: Japan withdraws from the League of Nations.

• October 1934: The Long March sets out in China.

• November 1936: Japan signs the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany.

• 1937–1945: Second Sino-Japanese War.

• June 1941: German invasion of the USSR.

• November 1941: Japan breaks off diplomatic relations with the USA.

• December 1941: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; Japan declares war against the USA and Britain.

Contextual Background: The Collapse of Imperial China

• External and Internal Pressure: China’s collapse began in the mid-19th century due to Western challenges and large-scale internal rebellions.

• Imperial End: The system of government that had lasted thousands of years ended in 1912 with the abdication of the last emperor.

• Disintegration: The newly formed republic could not prevent China from breaking into provinces controlled by warlords and their private armies.

• Key Terms:   - Republic: A state in which political power is held by representatives of the people rather than a monarch.   - Warlords: Regional chieftains who led private armies and competed for territory.   - Dynasty: A line of hereditary rulers; the Manchu (Ch'ing/Qing) dynasty ruled from 1644 to 1912.   - Purge: To remove people considered undesirable or harmful from a political context (derived from Latin purgare).

The Warlord Era (1916–1928)

• Manchu Erosion: The authority of the Manchu dynasty was eroded by Western exploitation and defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War ($1894\text{–}1895$). During the Russo-Japanese War ($1904\text{–}1905$), foreign powers fought on Chinese soil (Manchuria) without government interference.

• Boxer Rebellion ($1898\text{–}1901$):   - Nationalists took up arms against foreign influence; the Manchu government eventually supported them and declared war on foreign powers.   - An eight-nation alliance (Britain, Russia, Japan, France, USA, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) crushed the rebellion, followed by looting and demands for compensation.

• Westernization and Reform:   - Traditional culture was undermined by Western education; the Confucian examination system was abolished in 1905.   - Industrialization began with coal mines, iron foundries, cotton factories, roads, and railways.

• Sun Yat-sen ($1866\text{–}1925$):   - Known as a professional revolutionary, he founded the Revive China Society (1894) and the Tongmenhui (Revolutionary Alliance, 1905).   - He aimed to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and replace it with a republic based on Western models.

• The 1911 Revolution (Xinhai Revolution):   - Triggered by soldiers in Wuchang incensed by continuous compensation payments to foreigners.   - Sun Yat-sen was elected 'Provisional President' in December 1911 and announced the Republic of China in January 1912 (based in Nanking).   - Power was eventually ceded to Yuan Shih-kai, commander of the Beiyang Army, to avoid civil war. Pu Yi abdicated in March 1912.

Yuan Shih-kai and Military Dictatorship

• Military Background: Yuan Shih-kai ($1859\text{–}1916$) was a general who protected the Manchu dynasty but became president of the Republic.

• Suppression of Democracy:   - In 1913, Yuan established himself as a military dictator, suppressing political opponents and likely assassinating KMT chairman Sung Chiao-jen.   - He banned the KMT and dismissed its members from government.   - In 1914, he dismissed parliament and issued a new constitution giving him absolute power.

• Fall from Power:   - Popularity plummeted after accepting Japan’s Twenty-One Demands in 1915.   - In December 1915, he proclaimed himself Emperor of China, which caused provinces to declare independence and the army to withdraw support.   - He resigned and died in 1916 after only $83\text{ days}$ as emperor.

The Growing Chaos of Warlordism

• Military Expansion: Armies grew from $500,000$ in 1916 to $1\text{ million}$ in 1918 and over $2\text{ million}$ in 1928.

• Economic Degradation: Warlords seized businesses and land, driving peasants into poverty or forced conscription. By 1925, Chinese unemployment reached $168\text{ million}$.

• Peking Government: Lacked authority but controlled foreign loans and customs revenue, making it a target for warring factions.

• Exceptions: Yan Xishan (Shanxi Province) introduced reforms like improved education for girls, but most were corrupt.

The May Fourth Movement (1919)

• Origins: The New Culture Movement (est. 1915) argued that China’s weakness stemmed from outdated traditions and advocated for Western values like democracy and science.

• The Trigger: The Paris Peace Conference decided to award previously German-occupied territories in Shantung Province to Japan instead of China, despite China fighting for the Allies.

• The Protests:   - On 4 May 1919, $5,000$ students in Peking demonstrated with nationalist slogans like "do away with the Twenty-One Demands."   - Tensions spread nationwide; $100,000$ workers in Shanghai went on strike in June.

• Impact:   - Although China eventually regained Shantung, warlords made secret deals with Japan.   - Historians view it as an "intellectual revolution" that promoted literacy, nationalism, and the ideologies of the KMT and CCP.

The Growth of the Kuomintang and the First United Front

• Formation of the CCP (1921): Founded by intellectuals like Chen Duxiu; initially small (<1,000 members by 1925).

• Soviet Involvement: The Comintern (founded March 1919) encouraged the CCP to join Sun Yat-sen’s KMT to increase influence. This led to the First United Front in 1923.

• Whampoa Military Academy:   - Established to develop a modern KMT army. Sun appointed Chiang Kai-shek as head.   - Chiang was sent to Moscow for training; Soviet advisors provided financial and organizational aid.

• The Three Principles (Sun Yat-sen):   - Nationalism: A strong, unified China free of foreign interference.   - Democracy: Adoption of an elective system, preceded by education for self-government.   - Social and Economic Reform: Improved conditions for peasants/workers and land redistribution (without the communist extreme of property confiscation).

• Appeal of the KMT: Attracted students (May Fourth influence), businessmen (seeking order), and workers (via CCP collaboration).

The Northern Expedition (1926–1928)

• Chiang Kai-shek's Rise: Following Sun’s death in 1925, Chiang emerged as leader. He conducted the "Canton Purge" (March 1926) to remove communists from key KMT posts before launching the expedition.

• Factors for Success:   - Planning: Four years of detailed strategic planning.   - Soviet Support: Despite Chiang's anti-communism, Stalin provided military advisors and weapons, believing a united China benefited the USSR.   - NRA Strategy: The National Revolutionary Army ($100,000\text{–}250,000$ men) was well-trained and equipped compared to disorganized warlord mercenaries.   - Popular Support: Peasants weary of warlord violence welcomed the KMT forces.

• Outcome: The KMT captured Hankow, Shanghai, Nanking (1927), and Peking (1928). Chiang established a nationalist government in Nanking.

The KMT-CCP Conflict: White Terror and Extermination

• Shanghai Massacres (April 1927):   - Chiang initiated the "Purification Movement" to eliminate communist influence.   - He used the "Green Gang" (gangsters and criminals) to murder communists and trade unionists.   - Independent sources suggest $12,000$ deaths in three weeks; the CCP claimed $50,000$.

• White Terror: The purge spread to Changsha and Canton. This resulted in the withdrawal of Soviet support for the KMT.

• Extermination Campaigns ($1930\text{–}1934$): Chiang launched five campaigns to destroy the CCP base in Kiangsi.

Mao Tse-tung and the Long March ($1934\text{–}1935$)

• Mao's Philosophy: Convinced that China's revolution would be led by the peasantry ($\text{"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun"}$).

• The Surround and Starve Strategy: In 1933, KMT forces used blockhouses to encircle the Kiangsi Soviet, killing $60,000$ Red Army soldiers.

• The March Details:   - Approximately $90,000$ communists set out on a journey of $9,700\text{ km}$ ($6,000\text{ miles}$).   - Early disasters at the Xiang River reduced forces by half ($45,000$ lost).   - Mao took control in January 1935, adopting unpredictable, faster movement tactics.   - Terrain: Crossed $18$ mountain ranges and $24$ rivers.   - Survivors: Only $10,000\text{–}20,000$ reached Yenan in Shensi Province after $368\text{ days}$.

The Xi'an Incident (1936)

• Japanese Aggression: Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931 (Mukden Incident) and created the puppet state of Manchukuo with Pu Yi as figurehead.

• Chiang's Non-Resistance: Chiang prioritized "internal pacification" (defeating CCP) over resisting external invasion.

• The Kidnapping: Generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, who wanted to fight Japan rather than the Red Army, arrested Chiang in a cave in Xi'an.

• Resolution:   - The USSR (advocating for a united Chinese resistance) sent Chou En-lai to negotiate.   - Chiang was released after agreeing to the Second United Front to fight Japan.   - Zhang and Yang were subsequently punished (Zhang was under house arrest for $40\text{ years}$).

The Nanking Decade ($1928\text{–}1937$)

• Proposed Reforms:   - Economic: Creation of the Central Bank (1928), national currency, and infrastructure (highways increased from $28,000\text{ km}$ in 1927 to $109,747\text{ km}$ by 1936).   - Social: Laws against child labor, improvements in public health/sewers, and expanding education (elementary schools increased from $86,000$ to $261,000$).   - Legal: Establishment of the Supreme Court (1931).

• Failure of Implementation:   - Warlord resistance (e.g., Central Plains War 1930 involving a $600,000\text{-strong}$ KMT army).   - High military spending ($47\%$ of budget) vs. social welfare (almost nothing).   - Impact of the Great Depression ($1929$) and Japanese seizure of Manchuria's resources.

The Yenan Soviet and the Rectification Movement

• CCP Strategy: Mao developed a safe base in Yenan. Land was seized from landlords and redistributed to poorer peasants.

• Propaganda: Edgar Snow's Red Star over China (1937) and the US "Dixie Mission" (1944) gave glowing reports of the CCP.

• Rectification Movement ($1941\text{–}1944$):   - A terror campaign to ensure Mao's undisputed leadership.   - Members were forced to study Mao's writings; critics were arrested and accused of "individualism."   - Led by Kang Sheng (security chief); estimated $10,000$ people died; many forced to commit suicide.

The Second Sino-Japanese War ($1937\text{–}1945$)

• Invasion: Japan launched a full-scale invasion in July 1937. KMT forces retreated to western China (Chungking) after the fall of Nanking.

• Atrocities: The "Rape of Nanking" resulted in approximately $300,000$ deaths.

• Scorched Earth: Chiang ordered the destruction of Yellow River Dam dikes (June 1938) to stop the Japanese, killing $500,000\text{–}1,000,000$ Chinese civilians through flooding and subsequent famine.

• CCP Opportunity: Japan focused on KMT-controlled cities, allowing the CCP to expand in rural areas and frame themselves as the "true party of Chinese nationalism."

Japan: The Rise of Militarism and Failure of Democracy

• The Diet: Established in 1889; universal male suffrage by 1925. However, the Emperor (Hirohito) retained supreme power.

• Economic Turmoil:   - Post-WWI slump: cotton yarn prices fell $60\%$; silk fell $70\%$ in 1920.   - Great Depression: textile export value dropped by over $50\%$ between 1929 and 1931.

• Militarism: Secret societies like the Sakurakai (Cherry Blossom Society) sought military dictatorship. The May 15th Incident (1932) saw the assassination of PM Inukai Tsuyoshi by naval officers.

• The Manchurian Crisis (1931): The Kwantung Army acted without government permission to invade Manchuria after the Mukden Incident. The League of Nations failed to act, leading Japan to withdraw in 1933.

• Expansionist Goals: Seek self-sufficiency in raw materials (iron/coal) and establish the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere."

The Road to Pearl Harbor (1941)

• US Sanctions: President Roosevelt imposed an oil embargo in July 1941 after Japan seized Indo-China. Japan relied on the US for almost all its oil.

• The Attack (7 December 1941):   - Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto devised the plan to destroy the US Pacific Fleet.   - $6$ aircraft carriers, $453$ planes launched a surprise attack.   - US casualties: $2,402$ men, $190$ aircraft destroyed, $8$ ships damaged.

• Failure of Objectives: US aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, Saratoga) were at sea and escaped. Shallow water allowed many ships to be salvaged. Large oil supplies were not destroyed.

• Global Impact: Ended US isolationism; Germany and Italy declared war on the USA within days.

Questions & Discussion

• Activity 4.1: Compare Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shih-kai's views. Sun was a Western-educated intellectual advocating democracy; Yuan was a conservative general seeking imperial restoration.

• Activity 4.9: Why did Chiang adopt non-resistance to Japan? He believed China was too weak to fight Japan and needed to modernize/defeat communists first. Why was this unpopular? It looked like the government had abandoned the northern provinces and national honor.

• Activity 4.23: Did Pearl Harbor end in failure?   - Agree: It didn't destroy carriers or oil reserves; it brought the world's most powerful economy (USA) into war against Japan.   - Disagree: It secured short-term freedom for Japan to expand in Southeast Asia and decimated the US battle fleet temporarily.