Wk7: Cross-Cultural Psychology and Cultural Impacts on Abnormality and Etiology
Cross-Cultural Psychology and Cultural Impacts on Abnormality and Etiology
Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology
Cross-cultural psychology explores how cultural factors (values, beliefs, social norms) influence psychological processes (etiology, cognition, emotion, behavior).
It also looks at practical approaches to considering cultural factors in clinical practice and assessment.
Lecture 7: Cultural Impact on Abnormality and Etiology
Background and Basic Definitions
Dr. Deanna Cardenas discusses cross-cultural psychology, principles, and values.
Recap of the definition of culture and its impact on thinking, behaviours, and feelings.
Cultural impacts on abnormality and aetiology 病因学, focusing on definition, symptoms, classification, prevalence 患病率, and aetiology.
What is Cross-Cultural Psychology?
Cross-cultural psychology: An approach to the study of cultures that focuses on comparisons between different groups and testing theories as to why they do or do not differ from one another.
The definition has evolved over time.
Initial goal: Replicating findings from the West (mainly the United States) in other cultures (how similar are other cultures in comparison to western cultures).
Later goal: Mapping the world in terms of psychological variables (e.g., the Inglehart-Welzel world cultural map).
catholic european, confucian, orthodox european, latin america, african islamic, west and south asia, english speaking, pretestant europe.
survival vs self expression values, vs traditional vs secular 世俗 values
goal now: to understand differences across cultures, to co-create theories that explain these cross-cultural differences
understanding why cultures are different from each other
e.g. independent vs interdependent self-construal 自我建构/解释
Evolution of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Early stage: Applying Western theories to other cultures (e.g., using Freudian concepts to understand Southern Chinese culture).
Mid-1960s onwards: Recognizing that Western ideals should not be the standard for comparison.
Second goal: Mapping the world in terms of psychological variables.
Example: Inglehart-Welzel world cultural map, comparing traditional vs. secular values and survival vs. self-expression values.
Third goal: Understanding the reasons for cultural differences and co-creating theories to explain them.
Example: Independent vs. interdependent self-construal theory by Markus and Kitayama (1991).
Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Construal
Self-construals: Ways of thinking about ourselves.
Independent self: Self-concept is determined mainly by one's own self-concept, with less emphasis on connections to others.
Interdependent self: Self is fundamentally connected to others; the way one sees others is connected to the way one sees oneself.
Marcus and Kitayama proposed that Western cultures promote independent self-construals, while Asian cultures emphasize interdependent self-construals.
Example measurement:
Showing an image of a school of fish with one fish swimming in front.
Independent perspective: The fish is a leader with unique characteristics.
Interdependent perspective: The fish's behaviour is explained by its relation to the other fish.
Formal Definition of Cross-Cultural Psychology
An approach to the study of culture that focuses on comparisons between different groups and testing theories as to why they do or do not differ from one another.
Involves comparisons and understanding 'whys'.
The term consists of cross, culture, and psychology.
Culture Definition
Shared way in which individuals interpret what goes on around them (shared meaning).
Requires social groups; a single person cannot hold a culture.
The aim of cross-cultural psychology is to understand the mechanisms by which psychological variables lead to shared meaning within a group.
Cross (Comparison)
Implies differences; requires comparing at least two cultural groups.
It is very difficult to bound culture. Example: the different indigenous and aboriginal cultures and ethnic groups that exist within Australia, all have their own unique culture.
Bounding culture is difficult; cross-cultural psychologists often compare the West to Asia simplistically.
Summary of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Requires comparison between different groups.
The goal is to understand the underlying reasons for differences.
Theory-driven, not just mapping differences.
Differences may be in values, beliefs, self-concepts, personality, perceptions, attitudes, etc.
The Hofstede Project
Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, studied values across different cultures.
He surveyed over 117,000 (IBM) employees worldwide and created the first empirically based classification of values.
His goal was to identify dimensions of culture that could characterise how one nation differed from another. He basically wanted to know, can we identify values that are different across the different countries?
Methodology
Strict methodology to draw clear conclusions.
Focused on questions related to the work context.
Identified 12-18 questions that matched values.
Matched participants based on demographic variables.
Treated data at the national level.
Analysed data to account for response styles.
Conducted factor analysis to group items.
Hofstede's Four Values
Power Distance: The extent to which less powerful members accept and expect unequal power distribution.
how ‘ok’ are people with the unequal distribution of power?
Brazil and China value power distance more than Germany and the U.S.
Uncertainty Avoidance: A society's tolerance for ambiguity.
Brazil, Germany, and the U.S. are high in uncertainty avoidance (unwilling to accept uncertainty), while China is low (willing to accept uncertainty).
Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity is defined as a society that aims for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success; Femininity prefers cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and quality of life.
Germany, the U.S., and China are fairly similar, while Brazil is more feminine.
Individualism vs. Collectivism: The extent to which people in a society are integrated or have loose vs. tight ties in the group.
The U.S. is the most individualistic, while China is one of the more collectivistic countries.
Thousands of articles have been written on the differences between individualism vs. collectivism.
Individualism vs. Collectivism (Hofstede's Definition)
Individualism: Ties between individuals are loose, with everyone expected to look after themselves and their immediate family.
Collectivism: From birth, individuals are part of strong in-groups (family, tribe).
Collectivist societies emphasise 'we' identity, exclusionism, and harmony.
Individualist societies emphasise 'I' identity, universalism, and open competition.
Individualism is measured using Individualism scores (IDV) from 0 to 100. 0=collectivist, 100=individualism
Correlations with IDV Scores
Wealthier countries tend to be more individualistic.
Collectivist societies have lower press freedom.
Individualist societies have more press freedom.
Individualist societies have higher divorce rates.
Collectivist societies have lower divorce rates.
Pace of life is faster in individualist societies.
Individualist languages use the word 'I' more often.
Individualist societies use social media for active search, while collectivist societies use it for in-group communication.
Relationship Between Individualism and Power Distance
Low power distance is correlated with individualism.
Wealth is a major factor.
Changes Over Time
Individualism vs. collectivism are transferred from generation to generation.
Individualism has been increasing, but the order of countries has not changed.
New Values
Hofstede has added long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation and indulgence vs. restraint.
long term: tradition
indulgence vs restraint: treat yourself vs control yourself
Long-term orientation is about tradition, while indulgence vs. restraint is about treating yourself vs. controlling yourself.
Summary of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Requires comparison between different groups.
The goal is to understand the underlying reasons for differences.
Theory-driven, not just mapping differences.
Differences may be in values, beliefs, self-concepts, personality, perceptions, attitudes, etc.
Cross-cultural psychology is still a Western-centric field, highlighting the need for indigenous and critical psychologies.
Culture and its Impact on People's Thinking and Behaviours
Culture can be defined as the man-made part of the environment, shared lifestyle, beliefs, and values, the meaning system
Three ways culture shapes our experience:
Culture makes daily life predictable.
free up cognitive resources
being a part of a culture means knowing, implicitly 隐含地, how things are likely to unfold
Culture scaffolds what and how people think.
information processing
two cultural themes: individualism and collectivism
processing styles: analytic and holistic reaasoning
Culture is situated cognition (situational cues activate a cultural mindset).
momentarily activated cultural mindsets influence processing style
a cue that typically activates an individualistic or a collectivistic mindset might activate a different mindset under particular circumstances (e.g. Asian participants can be made to process like American participants and vice versa)
Cultural Shock
A feeling of disorientation and anxiety when adapting to the rules, practices, and expectations of another culture.
The second way that culture can shape our experience is that culture can scaffold what and how people think.
Culture shapes our experience
Culture is seen as a particular core theme.
It can impact our cognitive procedures when we are processing information.
The two cultural themes include Individualism and collectivism.
One is analytic and the other is holistic reasoning.
Culture and Cognition
Culture is situated cognition. This means that situational cues may activate a cultural mindset.
This has been a debate on the level of change possible in cultures. Is the difficulty of change high or are the differences easy to change. A cultural mindset would affect the processing of knowledge.
Individual minds process for main points with a collectivistic mindset with connection to others. Knowledge networks vary depending on situational cues. Cognitive processes are context-sensitive.
Ross and colleagues found that Chinese students studying in Canada described their values differently when speaking in English vs. Chinese.
Cognitive processes are context-sensitive; psychological situations influence cognition.
Context sensitivity does not depend on consciousness. happens unconsciously, unaware
Context effects are found in social knowledge, cognitive processes, and goals.
Individualism and Collectivism
Individualism: A social pattern that consists of loosely linked individuals who view themselves as independent of collectives. They give priority to their own personal goals.
are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and contracts they establish with others
give priority to their personal goals
emphasise rational analysis of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others
Collectivism: A social pattern consisting of closely linked individuals who see themselves as part of one or more collectives. They are willing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals.
primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by those collectives
willing to give priority to the goals of the collectives
emphasise their connectedness
Characteristics of Individualism and Collectivism
Individualism (independent self-construal) is characterized by autonomy and separation.
autonomous and separate
validate one’s own unique, internal attributes and goals
self-esteem: to distinguish themselves from others
Collectivism (interdependent self-construal) is characterized by connectedness and integration with others.
connected and integrated with others
self: an extension of the social group
strive to maintain harmony
Euro Canadians showed lower levels of interdependent self-control and higher levels of independent self-control compared to Koreans.
Cultural Differences in Social Norms
Participants from Japan and Hong Kong indicated that deviation from social rules leads to sanctions like exclusion.
Japanese participants emphasised obedience, avoiding loss of face, maintaining harmonious relationships, and hierarchical work relations.
Culture and Assertiveness自信
European Americans showed higher levels of assertiveness than Asian Americans.
Being assertive may result in a loss of face or damage to group harmony in Asian countries.
In Germany, problems are directly addressed, while in China, problems are indirectly addressed.
Communication Style
Asian Americans are less open and more indirect in communicating compared to European Americans.
The indirect communication style involves expressing negative thoughts or feelings in an ambiguous manner.
Angry faces are commonly expressed in Germany, whereas they are not commonly expressed in China.
Self-Criticism
Korean Canadians reported higher levels of self-criticism compared to Euro Canadians.
Self-criticism can be functional for Eastern Asians as it helps them identify and adjust negative personal attributes.
Hansei in Japan is a classroom routine that allows students to monitor their behaviors and maintain social harmony.
Predictors of Life Satisfaction
In collectivistic societies, emotions and norms equally predict life satisfaction.
In individualistic countries, emotions have a larger effect on predicting life satisfaction compared to norms.
Cultural Change
Cultures may be becoming more individualistic due to social changes and the movement from rural to urban areas. (modernisation)
Modern economy can cause urbanisation, smaller household size and lower rates of fertility. The level and influence of social influence decreases. The ability of autonomous decision making also occurs.
Cultural Impact on Abnormality and Aetiology
Definition, Symptoms, and Classification
Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behaviours, which attempts to describe and understand disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.
includes: description of abnormal behaviour
causes of abnormal behaviour
treatment of abnormal behaviour
DSM-5 defines a mental disorder as a clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour.
Mental disorder is always associated with significant distress or disability in the person's occupational, social, or other important activities.
The DSM-5, while an essential tool for diagnosing mental disorders, has been critiqued for its cultural limitations. One major concern is its Western-centric framework, which prioritises biomedical models of mental health over culturally specific understandings of distress.
Many non-Western cultures conceptualise mental health differently, often integrating spiritual, communal, or somatic explanations that may not align with DSM-5 criteria
Deviance from Social Norms
Clinicians rely on the deviance criterion to determine the diagnosis.
Antisocial personality disorder is a pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others.
Behaviours that deviate from social norms are seen as abnormal.
Cross-dressing, not a disorder, is seen as abnormal in some societies.
Social Withdrawal Behaviours
Social withdrawal behaviours are not always appreciated, but they are more acceptable in Latin America.
Hearing voices or being surrounded by spirits is normal and God pressing in some cultures, such as Asian countries.
Distress or Impairment
People are judged to have a psychological disorder if their everyday adaptive behaviour is impaired.
This behaviour interferes with their social or occupational functioning.
Shyness is impacted by cultural contexts.
Shyness in Different Cultures (anxiety and discomfort in social situations, fear of negative evaluation by others, discomfort and inhibition in interpersonal situations)
Shyness is a type of anxiety and discomfort in social situations.
In Western individualistic societies, independence and assertiveness are considered important developmental goals. Shyness, which impedes the expression of social initiative, is often perceived as socially immature and inappropriate.
In group-oriented societies, the emphasis is on the harmonious functioning of the group.
group oriented societies
Chinese students nominated playmates/friends with high levels of shyness as positive, while Canadian students nominated such individuals as negative.
Shyness in Chinese culture is seen as a reflection of social maturity and understanding.
Value Judgments
Value judgments reflect prevailing cultural values, social trends, and political forces, as well as scientific knowledge.
Culture-bound syndromes reflect how cultures impact the symptoms of a mental health disorder.
Taijin Kyofusho vs. Social Anxiety Disorder
Taijin Kyofusho: Characterized by extreme anxiety that one's body odor/gaze is offensive to others.
Social Anxiety Disorder: People are concerned about scrutiny by others and potential negative evaluation.
In Taijin Kyofusho, focus is on individual's offense and in Social Anxiety, it is the negative evaluation that could occur.Taijin Kyofusho is rooted in Japanese value of extreme interpersonal sensitivity.
Cultural Impact on Taijin Kyofusho and Social Anxiety
Japanese students showed significantly higher levels of Taijin Kyofusho compared to British students.
Indonesian students showed significantly higher levels of Taijin Kyofusho scores compared to Swiss students.
Symptoms and Presentation
Different cultures may give way to different symptoms.
Factor Structure of Social Anxiety
Social interaction anxiety (experience, social situation such as speech presentation)
Japanese factor had the two factors: (1)scrutiny factor and (2) conversation factor.
*(3) Relationship factor fear not necessarily see in a western setting.
Cultural Differences in Factor Structures
Study by our research team on anxiety.
Clinical anxiety study sample: Australian and Japanese clinical populations.
Measurement invariant (whether to samples would similar symptoms- if samples are similar).
Item Invariance of Japanese Sample
Relative to Australian participants, Japanese participants reported lower levels of fear of attracting attention, which goes against most expectation due to the population's social understanding.
Impact of Culture on Etiology
Biological Factors: Family studies suggest a genetic predisposition can impact the development of anxiety disorders, such as inhibited temperament.
Expression of children can have parent's positive attitude towards children.
Cognitive Facors and stress can contribute to development of anxiety.
Cognitive factors - may be people vulnerable to anxiety.
Misinterpreting harmless: a person who may focus excessive attention on percieved threat, etc. are all impacted by cultural norms.
Stress levels: Western and eastern country people showed social reaction from strss.
For those asian students being quiet can be seen as a good quality. Quality of life and social wellbign/shy impacts a less positive note.
Cultural Impacts on Treatment Outcomes
Content of this lecture can lead to a path to being better informed on treatment (lecture 12).
two classification systems for mental disorders:
the international classification of diseases (ICD-11) by WHO
the classification system of APA, the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5)
Here are key points to focus on while studying for the exam:
Cross-Cultural Psychology Definition and Goals: Understand what cross-cultural psychology is, its evolution, and its goals, including comparing cultures and understanding reasons for differences.
Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Construal: Grasp the concepts of independent and interdependent self-construals and how they differ across cultures.
Hofstede's Values: Know Hofstede's four main cultural values (Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity vs. Femininity, Individualism vs. Collectivism) and how they vary across countries.
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Understand the characteristics, measurements, and correlations associated with individualism and collectivism.
Culture's Impact on Cognition: Recognize how culture shapes experiences, including daily life predictability, scaffolding thinking, and stewarded cognition.
Cultural Influences on Social Norms and Communication: Understand how cultural differences impact social norms, assertiveness, communication styles, and self-criticism.
Cultural Impact on Abnormality: Understand the influence of culture on defining abnormality, symptoms, and classification of mental disorders.
Cultural Variations in Disorders: Know how culture-bound syndromes like Taijin Kyofusho differ from disorders like social anxiety disorder.
Etiology Considerations: Recognize the impact of culture on biological and cognitive factors related to the etiology of disorders.
Cultural Impacts on Treatment Outcomes: Appreciate how understanding cultural differences can lead to better-informed treatment approaches.