Justifications- Legal Frameworks from 15th Century Europe

1. Technological and Motivating Factors

• Navigational Innovations: The success of early expeditions was underpinned by the development of the Caravel, a ship with a shallow draft and lateen (triangular) sails that allowed for sailing against the wind (volta do mar), and the implementation of tools like the astrolabe and quadrant.

• The Three G's: Motivations were driven by a desire for Gold (accessing West African spice and gold markets), Glory (national prestige), and God (finding the mythical Christian kingdom of Prester John and spreading Christianity).

2. Initial Encounters and Expansion

• The Barrier of Cape Bojador: For years, European sailors feared the "Sea of Darkness" south of Cape Bojador. In $1434$, Gil Eanes successfully rounded the cape, proving the Atlantic was navigable further south.

• Methods of Interaction:

  • Raiding: Early coastal encounters often involved the kidnapping of locals for the burgeoning slave trade, starting notably in $1441$ under Antão Gonçalves.

  • The Feitoria System: Transitioned from raiding to trading by establishing feitorias (fortified trading posts/factories) which allowed for long-term economic presence without requiring massive territorial conquest.

3. Institutional Support and Monopolies

• Prince Henry the Navigator (Infante Dom Henrique): As the Grand Master of the Order of Christ, he utilized the order's vast resources to fund maritime charts and expeditions. He established a center for navigation at Sagres, attracting cartographers and astronomers.

• King Afonso V and King John II: Continued the expansion. King John II was particularly instrumental in institutionalizing the trade of gold and slaves as a royal monopoly, centralizing wealth in the Portuguese Crown.

4. The Geopolitics of Papal Legitimacy

• The Papal Bulls: These were essential legal documents that granted Portugal exclusive rights and moral justification.

  • Romanus Pontifex ($1455$): Granted King Afonso V the right to conquer non-Christian lands and reduced their inhabitants to perpetual servitude, effectively legalizing the slave trade under ecclesiastical law.

  • Inter Caetera ($1456$): Confirmed previous grants and gave the Order of Christ spiritual jurisdiction over the new territories.

• European Rivalry: These bulls served to warn other Catholic powers, particularly the Crown of Castile, against interfering in Portuguese-claimed waters.

5. Progress in Mapping and Strategic Outposts

• Expanding the Frontier: By $1460$, Portuguese ships reached the Bissagos Islands and Sierra Leone. Mapping was no longer just about coastlines but about identifying seasonal winds and currents.

• São Jorge da Mina (Elmina): Established in $1482$ in modern-day Ghana. It served as the headquarters for the gold trade. The construction required delicate negotiations with the local ruler, Kwamin Ansah, highlighting that the Portuguese often had to respect local African power structures rather than just imposing their will.

6. Economic and Cultural Dynamics

• The Impact of West African Gold: The influx of gold allowed Portugal to mint the Cruzado, a high-quality gold coin that became a standard currency in international commerce, strengthening the Portuguese economy against the rest of Europe.

• Afro-Portuguese Ivories: The cultural exchange was reflected in the commission of "Sapi-Portuguese" ivories. These were salt-cellars and spoons carved by West African artisans for European nobles, featuring a hybrid of African aesthetics and European motifs (like Portuguese heraldry or Christian crosses).

7. Shift Toward Colonization

• Settlement of Atlantic Islands: The colonization of Madeira ($1419$), the Azores ($1427$), and Cape Verde ($1444$) provided the agricultural model (especially sugar plantations) that would later be exported to the Americas. These islands served as vital reprovisioning stops for ships heading further south or west.