Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires

Aztec Creation and Settlement History

Before the $100\text{'s}$, the Aztecs did not possess a permanent homeland. Their central founding vision dictated that they were to seek out a specific divine sign: an eagle perched upon a cactus while eating a snake. Seeing this precise omen would signal the exact location where they were meant to settle. Upon witnessing this divine event at Lake Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs established their capital. In modern times, Mexico City is built directly on top of this former lake.

Hernán Cortés and the Spanish Arrival

Hernán Cortés was commissioned to explore, conduct trade, and search for Christian captives (believers of Christianity), standing as one of the first Spanish conquistadors and conquerors. When Cortés arrived, his presence aligned with Aztec religious prophecies and teachings. Aztec doctrine foretold the return of a pale-skinned God coming from the East to rule their civilization. These teachings specified that the deity would possess horses equipped with metal and would arrive within precise calendar cycles predicting his return.

Because Cortés arrived within the expected calendar timeframe with horses and metal gear, the Aztecs believed he was this returning God. Their belief was further reinforced by the visual perception of mounted riders: the Aztecs believed the horse and rider constituted a single two-headed man, an extraordinary entity that made the return of their deity even more convincing.

Malinche and the Fall of Moctezuma II

Malinche was an Indigenous woman who served as a vital interpreter, advisor, and intermediary for Cortés. During the initial encounter between Cortés and the Aztec leader, Cortés planned to present a group of women for sexual purposes to the Aztec ruler, with Malinche included among them. Malinche held a strong desire for revenge against the Aztecs due to prior ill-treatment and harms they had inflicted upon her. Consequently, she chose to assist Cortés by revealing how to defeat and conquer her former captors. Cortés and Malinche also maintained a personal relationship.

Moctezuma II served as the ruler of the Aztec Empire, governing from its capital, Tenochtitlan. Cortés took Moctezuma II hostage and systematically used him as a puppet to control the Aztec government. Once the Aztec population discovered the hostage situation and political manipulation, open hostilites erupted, leading to intense fighting between the Aztecs and the Spanish forces.

Biological Impact and Smallpox Epidemic

In addition to military combat, disease functioned as a devastating factor in the downfall of the native populations. Smallpox acted as a secret killer brought over by the Spanish, who spread the disease without even knowing they carried it. Smallpox became recorded as the $\#4\text{ killer}$ of native populations. The resulting outbreak devastated the unexposed local population, killing off approximately half ($50\%$) of the Indigenous people.

Francisco Pizarro and the Inca Conquest

In South America, Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Inca Civilization, arriving in the year $1532$. Pizarro was directly inspired by the tactics and success of Cortés. His arrival occurred at a moment when the Incan state was severely vulnerable and recovering from a recent civil war. The leader of the Inca Empire at the time of Pizarro's invasion was Atahualpa.

The Ransom and Murder of Atahualpa

Pizarro took Atahualpa prisoner and demanded an extraordinary ransom for his release. The Inca people complied with the demands, delivering $13{,}420\text{ pounds}$ of gold and $26{,}000\text{ pounds}$ of silver. In contemporary economic value, this quantity of precious metal corresponds to approximately $1.5\text{ Billion USD}$ for the gold and $72\text{ Billion USD}$ for the silver. Despite the complete delivery of this monumental ransom, the Spanish executed Atahualpa. Following his murder, it took the Spanish a total of $40\text{ years}$ to establish full imperial control over this region of the Americas.

Francisco Pizarro

Following the collapse of the Inca Empire, the Spanish conquerors degenerated into internal strife driven by immense wealth and greed. The conquest descended into a greed fest, causing the Spanish forces to break apart and form competing sub-groups. This violent internal fragmentation ultimately resulted in Francisco Pizarro being murdered by his own men.

Key Factors in Spanish Conquest Success

The ultimate success of the Spanish against both the Aztec and Inca populations was driven by three main factors:

1. Superior Military Technology: The Spanish possessed significant weaponry advantages, including horses, cannons, muskets, metal armor, and metal helmets.

2. Exploitation of Native Divisions: Both the Aztecs and Incas were surrounded by native enemies and hostile regional factions, whom the Spanish exploited and allied with.

3. Devastating Disease Epidemics: Introduced European illnesses severely weakened Indigenous populations and destroyed their defense capacity; key diseases included smallpox, chickenpox, and measles.