Exam #3 Review

Friar Tetzel

  • Dominican friar recruited by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences across Germany.

  • His sales were part of a campaign to finance St. Peter’s Basilica and Leo’s extravagant lifestyle.

  • Famous slogan: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from Purgatory springs.”

  • Sold indulgences in Wittenberg, where Luther lived, triggering Luther’s outrage.

  • Tetzel’s campaign directly led to the posting of the 95 Theses.

Limbo

  • Medieval theological idea: afterlife “waiting room” for unbaptized infants.

  • Neither Heaven nor Hell; no suffering.

  • Based on belief baptism was required for salvation.

  • Luther rejected Limbo as unbiblical, contributing to his criticism of Church teachings.

The Peace of Augsburg (1555)

  • Ended early religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire.

  • Principle: “Cuius regio, eius religio” → “Whoever rules, his religion.”

  • Allowed princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories.

  • First legal recognition of Protestantism.

  • Failed to include Calvinists or other Protestant groups.

Treatment of Jews in 13th Century Europe

  • Intensified persecution as the Church grew more powerful.

  • Under Pope Innocent III’s decrees:

    • Jews could not hold public office.

    • Forced to wear distinctive clothing (early form of the yellow badge).

    • Not allowed in public during Holy Week.

    • Barred from retail trade and many professions.

  • Heavy taxation and increasing expulsions:

    • Expelled from England in 1290 and France in 1306.

    • Many fled to Poland for protection.

Heresy – Weapons Used Against It

  • Excommunication: removal from Church and sacraments.

  • Interdict: sacraments denied to an entire region.

  • The Inquisition:

    • Investigative body that used interrogation and torture.

    • Confession → execution or imprisonment.

    • Spread widespread fear.

  • Crusades against heretics (e.g., Albigensians/Cathari).

  • Destruction of property and public burnings.

Factors in Decline of Medieval Civilization

  • Climate crisis: “Little Ice Age,” years of unending rain → crop failure and famine.

  • Silver shortage → severe economic problems.

  • The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) devastated France and England.

  • Black Death (1347–1351) killed 1/3 of population; labor shortages led to revolts.

  • Church corruption weakened spiritual authority.

  • Decline of feudalism and rise of social unrest.

Black Death and Anti-Semitism, the Black Death, Cures

  • Arrived in 1347 from Asia; spread by fleas on rats.

  • Fast spread caused panic and collapse of charity/social norms.

  • Anti-Semitism:

    • Jews blamed for “poisoning wells.”

    • Mass burnings in Basel and Strasbourg.

    • Later recognized as false; Jews scapegoated due to fear.

  • Cures attempted: fire, sewer living, crushed crystals, perfumes, astrology.

  • People believed it might be the apocalypse.

The Flagellants

  • Religious movement reacting to the Black Death.

  • Groups marched town to town, singing hymns and whipping themselves.

  • Believed penance would end God’s anger.

  • Rejected Church authority → eventually condemned by the Pope.

  • Spread panic and disorder.

Millenarians

  • Believed the world was ending soon (“millennium mindset”).

  • Rose sharply due to famine, plague, war.

  • Contributed to radical religious reform movements and social upheaval.

The Five Pillars of Islam

  1. Shahada: declaration of faith.

  2. Salat: pray 5 times daily facing Mecca.

  3. Zakat: charitable giving (2.5% of income).

  4. Sawm (Ramadan): fasting from sunrise to sunset.

  5. Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime for those able.

Skellig Michael

  • Remote Irish island monastery founded by early Christian monks.

  • Example of extreme monastic life in harsh landscapes.

  • Symbol of how Irish monks preserved Christianity through isolation.

  • Featured in modern media (e.g., Star Wars).

The Book of Kells

  • Illuminated manuscript created by Irish monks.

  • Features intricate decoration; preserved knowledge during Dark Ages.

  • Copied by hand in monasteries, often by candlelight.

Simony

  • Buying and selling church positions.

  • Widespread corruption, often involving high-ranking clergy and popes.

  • Pope Leo X engaged in simony by selling the archbishop title to raise money.

  • One of the abuses reformers targeted.

Pope Stephen VI

  • Held the Cadaver Synod (897).

  • Dug up his predecessor, Pope Formosus, and put him on trial.

  • Found guilty; corpse mutilated.

  • Represents extreme corruption and instability of the medieval papacy.

The Koran (Qur’an)

  • Holy scripture of Islam; believed to be the literal word of God.

  • Revealed to Muhammad by Angel Gabriel.

  • Provides legal, moral, and social guidance.

  • Foundation for Islamic theocracy—the state and religion unified.

Ramadan

  • Month of fasting (no eating or drinking from sunrise to sunset).

  • Commemorates first revelation of the Qur’an.

  • Emphasis on discipline, prayer, charity, community.

The Sunni-Shi’ite Split

  • Occurred after Muhammad’s death in 632.

  • Sunni: believed leadership should be chosen (Abu Bakr).

  • Shi’ite: believed leadership must stay in Muhammad’s family (Ali).

  • Resulted in enduring political and theological divide.

The 717 Siege of Constantinople

  • Muslim armies attempted to seize Constantinople.

  • Byzantines successfully defended using Greek Fire.

  • Stopped Muslim expansion into Eastern Europe.

  • Critical for survival of Eastern Roman Empire.

Muslims’ Attitude Toward Judaism and Christianity

  • Jews and Christians = People of the Book.

  • Respected as earlier monotheists; Jesus seen as a prophet.

  • Allowed to worship but had restrictions (special tax, no weapons).

  • Often treated better in Islamic lands than in Christian Europe.

Survival of Eastern Roman Empire

  • Strong defenses of Constantinople (massive walls).

  • Use of Greek Fire.

  • Wealth from trade networks.

  • Skilled diplomacy with neighbors.

  • Retention of Roman legal and administrative traditions.

Christianity and The Roman Empire

  • After fall of Rome, Church became Europe’s central unifying force.

  • Monasteries preserved literacy, learning, and agriculture.

  • Example: monks at Skellig Michael and creators of Book of Kells.

  • Church became powerful politically and socially.

  • Used to promote order during chaotic periods.

Jihad

  • Means “striving in the way of God.”

  • Two interpretations:

    • Internal spiritual struggle to live righteously.

    • Military struggle, including early Islamic expansion.

  • Used by Muhammad to unify tribes and expand Islam.

Mecca

  • Birthplace of Muhammad.

  • Spiritual center of Islam, housing the Kaaba.

  • Destination of the Hajj pilgrimage.

  • Site of persecution, then conversion by Muhammad.

Islamic State and Theocracy

  • Religion and political governance were unified under Muhammad.

  • The Koran served as the constitution.

  • Caliphs inherited leadership of both faith and state.

  • Early Islam blended law, worship, and civil administration.

Hegira (Hijra)

  • Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina in 622.

  • Marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar (Year 1).

  • Key turning point: Medina converted and Islam grew rapidly.

Rights of Christians and Jews in Muslim Lands

  • Granted protection but as second-class subjects.

  • Required to pay jizya (non-Muslim tax).

  • Could not own weapons or join military.

  • Allowed to keep places of worship and self-govern in many cases.

  • Safer than in Christian Europe where persecution was widespread.

Fourth Lateran Council, Jews and Muslims, Transubstantiation

  • Called by Pope Innocent III in 1215; marked peak of papal power.

  • Key decisions:

    • Affirmed transubstantiation.

    • Banned simony and enforced clerical discipline.

    • Declared Orthodox Christians inferior.

    • Bishops must hunt down heretics.

    • Formalized the Seven Sacraments.

  • Anti-Jewish/Muslim decrees:

    • Forced distinctive dress (Star of David).

    • Excluded from public office.

    • Forbidden from appearing during Holy Week.

  • Later adopted by anti-Semitic regimes (including Hitler).

Edict of Nantes (1598)

  • Issued by Henry IV of France.

  • Granted Huguenots limited rights to worship and hold office.

  • Ended French Wars of Religion.

  • First major political document promoting religious tolerance.

Medieval Christian Church Problems and Reform, Wealth and Extravagance

  • Wealthy, politically dominant Church.

  • Popes often corrupt (examples: Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Leo X).

  • Simony, nepotism, indulgence sales rampant.

  • Extravagant papal lifestyle (Leo X’s parties).

  • Reformers (Waldensians, Wycliffe, Hus) challenged excess.

  • Growing public frustration set stage for Reformation.

Martin Luther: Biography, Indulgences, The 95 Theses, Difference Between Clergy & Laity, Worms

  • Born 1483 in Germany; became Augustinian monk.

  • Struggled with spiritual guilt; emphasized salvation through faith alone.

  • Outraged by indulgence sales, especially Tetzel’s.

  • 95 Theses (1517): attacked indulgences and papal abuse.

  • Printing press enabled rapid spread.

  • Believed all Christians were spiritually equal (“priesthood of all believers”).

  • Diet of Worms (1521): refused to recant → excommunicated.

  • Protected by Prince Frederick of Saxony; began German Protestantism.

  • Married an ex-nun; allowed clergy to have families.

*The Crusades

  • Series of religious wars to retake Holy Land from Muslims.

  • Began 1095 under Pope Urban II.

  • Motivated by faith, penance, adventure, land, and papal politics.

  • Saw widespread violence, including massacres of Jews and Muslims.

  • Strengthened papal authority and religious fanaticism.

  • Led to formation of the Inquisition.

*

The First Crusade

  • Launched in 1096; only crusade to succeed.

  • Captured Antioch, Edessa, Acre, and Jerusalem (1099).

  • Siege led to starvation and cannibalism at times.

  • Massacred all inhabitants of Jerusalem upon victory.

  • Established Crusader States in the Levant.

The Children’s Crusade (1212)

  • Led by Stephen of Cloyes, a French shepherd boy.

  • Believed children would peacefully convert Muslims.

  • Thousands marched to the coast.

  • Many tricked by criminals posing as “helpers” → sold into slavery or killed.

The Waldensians and Peter Waldo

  • Peter Waldo (1173) gave up wealth to preach poverty and Scripture.

  • Translated Bible into French; taught lay preaching.

  • Criticized Church wealth and corruption.

  • Declared heretical and violently persecuted.

The Cathari

  • Heresy in southern France; believed in dualism (spirit good, matter evil).

  • Rejected sacraments and the material world.

  • Perfecti = spiritual elite.

  • Pope Innocent III launched Albigensian Crusade → nearly exterminated.

Francis of Assisi

  • Son of wealthy merchant; embraced a life of poverty.

  • Preached among lepers and poor.

  • Founded Franciscan Order (“Little Brothers”).

  • Movement later formalized by Church for control.

The Hounds of the Lord

  • Nickname for the Dominicans (Latin: Domini canes).

  • Founded by Dominic to combat heresy.

  • Led role in Inquisition.

  • Missionary and educational order.

Pope Leo X

  • Pope from 1513–1521; member of Medici family.

  • Known as “the party pope”; extremely lavish.

  • Funded building of St. Peter’s Basilica with indulgence sales.

  • Overlooked Luther’s early criticism, allowing Reformation to explode.

Gutenberg and the Reformation

  • Movable type printing press (c. 1450) revolutionized communication.

  • Allowed mass printing of indulgences and Church documents.

  • Spread Luther’s writings quickly across Europe.

  • Enabled Bible translations into vernacular languages.

The Seven Sacraments

  1. Baptism

  2. Confession

  3. Communion (Eucharist; transubstantiation)

  4. Confirmation

  5. Marriage

  6. Holy Orders

  7. Last Rites/Anointing of Sick

  • Constructed a cradle-to-grave system giving Church control over life.

The Huguenots

  • French Calvinist Protestants.

  • Oppressed under Catholic monarchy.

  • Thousands killed during St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572).

  • Many fled France; some to Ireland.

  • Later protected under the Edict of Nantes.

Saladin the Merciful

  • United Muslim forces in late 1100s.

  • Retook Jerusalem in 1187 without massacring inhabitants.

  • Regarded as chivalrous and merciful even by Christian chroniclers.

  • Prompted the Third Crusade.

Henry VIII and His Wives

  1. Catherine of Aragon – divorced; mother of Mary I.

  2. Anne Boleyn – mother of Elizabeth I; executed.

  3. Jane Seymour – mother of Edward VI; died after childbirth.

  4. Anne of Cleves – marriage annulled; political match gone wrong.

  5. Catherine Howard – executed for adultery.

  6. Catherine Parr – survived Henry.

  • Broke from Rome to secure annulment → created Church of England.

  • Once fiercely defended Catholicism (“Defender of the Faith”).