Roman Republic Notes

Roman Republic (509-44 BC)

Themes of the Republic

  • Expansion and Warfare: New territory acquisition led to new threats.

    • War and its effects were significant themes.

  • Citizenship and Status: Defining who was considered Roman and who held leadership positions.

  • Adaptation and Compromise: Developing new solutions to address emerging problems.

Early Roman History

  • Traditional Founding: 753 BC

  • Rule by Kings: Initially ruled by kings, including foreign kings from the Etruscans.

  • "Tyranny" Phase: Similar to Greek cities, Rome experienced a "tyranny" phase.

Cincinnatus

  • Dictator: Chosen as dictator in 458 BC to protect Rome from invasion.

  • Service: Served as dictator and successfully defended Rome.

  • Refusal of Power: After saving the city, he relinquished absolute power and returned to his farm.

  • Model Roman: Cincinnatus is considered a model Roman, embodying the virtues they should value.

  • Collapse of the Republic: Romans would likely attribute the Republic's collapse to the loss of Cincinnatus' virtues.

Roman Government Officials

  • Elected Positions: Positions were elected, typically held for one-year terms.

    • Consuls: Leaders of the government and army.

    • Praetors: Judges.

    • Aediles: Maintained public buildings, roads, markets, and documented laws.

    • Quaestors: Financial officers responsible for conducting audits.

    • Tribunes: Represented the Plebeians and had veto power over laws.

    • Censors: Maintained a census, controlled the draft and tax records, and punished immorality.

Roman Government Structure

  • Elected Officials: Romans elected several officials, usually on a yearly basis.

  • Consuls: The first and most powerful officials were the two annual Consuls.

  • Limitations: To prevent the rise of a king, limitations were placed on elected officials:

    • Elected by the people.

    • Served a limited term.

    • Had specific powers and responsibilities.

    • Were not elected alone (e.g., two Consuls and 10 Tribunes)

Elected Officials and Assemblies

  • Fear of Monarchy: Romans were wary of a monarchy.

  • Government Design: The government was designed to prevent one person from gaining excessive power.

  • Elected Leaders: Relied on elected leaders with short terms.

  • Voting Assemblies: Utilized voting assemblies like the Senate.

  • Adaptability: The system was modified and adjusted over time to adapt to changing circumstances.

Roman Government Assemblies

  • Senate: The most exclusive body in Roman government, composed of 300 members.

    • Provided advice to the government.

    • Controlled the treasury.

    • Investigated public crimes like treason.

  • Centuriate Assembly: Elected body dominated by the aristocracy.

    • Population divided into centuries based on wealth and rank.

    • The wealthy had more centuries than the poor.

  • Tribal Assembly: Represented the Plebeians.

    • Elected Tribunes.

    • Passed plebiscita, which eventually had the force of law.

Role of the Senate

  • Senate's Importance: The Senate was the most famous part of the Roman government.

  • Senate's Control: Controlled the treasury and acted as a court for crimes against the state.

  • Senate's Advisory Role: Provided advice to the government, which was usually followed.

  • Law-Making: Unlike the US Senate, the Roman Senate did NOT make laws. Law-making was eventually done by the Assembly of the Plebians.

Struggle of the Orders - Patricians and Plebians

  • 450 BC: Twelve Tables Published

  • 366 BC: One Consul is always a Plebeian

  • 326 BC: Debt Slavery is Outlawed

  • 300 BC: Priesthood is open to Plebeians

  • 287 BC: Plebiscita have the force of law for all. Senate’s veto is removed.

  • 264 BC: Democracy in theory but run by Patricians and wealthy Plebeians.

Patricians and Plebians

  • Social Division: Rome was strictly divided between the Patricians (powerful noble class) and the Plebians (everyone else).

  • Struggle of the Orders: A two-century struggle, known as the "struggle of the orders," saw the Plebians gradually gain more equality.

  • Plebian Power: The Plebians' most effective weapon was to leave or threaten to leave if their demands were not met.

Roman Military Expansion

  • Control of Italian Peninsula: The Republic expanded to control most of the Italian peninsula over two centuries.

  • Integration of Conquered People: Defeated peoples were offered a chance to join the Roman world.

    • They had to provide troops to Rome’s army.

    • They could govern themselves and enjoy local political and religious freedom.

  • Citizenship: Rome offered full citizenship, first to their Latin neighbors and then to an ever-growing population.

Punic Wars with Carthage

  • Significance: The Punic Wars were the largest and most dangerous conflicts in the Republican Era.

    • First Punic War: 264-241 BC

    • Second Punic War: 218-201 BC

    • Third Punic War: 149-146 BC

1st Punic War - Roman Navy

  • Need for a Navy: Rome needed a navy to win the First Punic War, which was fought in the Mediterranean Sea.

  • Lack of Experience: Rome had no prior naval experience.

  • Weather Losses: Lost more ships to bad weather than enemy action.

    • 1600 ships lost to accidents.

  • Continuous Building: Despite the losses, Rome never stopped building ships.

Second Punic War

  • Hannibal's Invasion: Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy.

    • He hoped that non-Roman Italians would rally to his cause.

  • Roman Invasion of Africa: When Rome invaded Africa, Carthage faced rebellions.

Punic Wars: Government & Allies

  • Loyalty of Allies: Rome’s allies remained loyal despite Hannibal’s success on the battlefield.

    • Roman citizenship or alliance was seen as a positive.

  • Collapse of Carthaginian Empire: When a Roman army arrived in North Africa, the Carthaginian empire began to collapse.

  • Survival of the Roman System: The Roman government remained functioning, their society remained stable and dedicated to winning, and their allies stayed loyal and kept fighting.

Ambition, War, and Plunder (200BC - 100BC)

*War leads to:
* Fame and Popularity – to get elected to office.
* Personal Wealth – through bribes and plunder.
* Income for the State – Land and prisoners of war to be sold.

  • But also:

    • New threats and longer borders…

    • Great public and private expenses…

Latifundia

  • Definition: Large farms run for profit.

  • Labor: Worked by slave labor.

Consequences of War

  • Soldier Deployments: Soldiers were sent on multi-year deployments.

  • Farm Decline: Without their labor, their family farms suffered and declined.

  • Soldier Displacement: Many soldiers returned home to find nothing left, and their families had moved on.

  • Latifundia Replacement: Small family farms were replaced by large Latifundia, which were for-profit farms worked by slave labor.

  • Decline of Farmer-Soldier-Citizen: The farmer-soldier-citizen, the backbone of the Roman world, was in trouble.

Problems of the 100’s

  • Wealth Inequality: Vast wealth and its unequal distribution.

  • Increase in Slavery: Dramatic increase in slavery.

  • Military Defeats: Military defeats on many fronts.

  • 177 BC: Decision to stop founding colonies.

  • 149 BC: 1st permanent court, to prosecute abuse of the provinces

  • 146 BC: Great ancient cities of Carthage and Corinth destroyed.

  • 140 BC: Failure to pass an agricultural reform bill.

  • 130’s BC: 1st organized slave rebellions.

Problems in the 100’s and Beyond

  • Government Collapse: The century after the victory over Carthage saw Roman government falter and then collapse.

  • Failure to Address War Problems: Many people saw the problems that war produced, but the government failed to fix them.

  • Rise of War Heroes: Wars brought profits to many and raised ambitious young men to the status of war hero.

  • Intertwined Politics and Military: Politics and the military became intertwined.

    • Politicians served at the head of personal armies.

  • Violence: Violence spread quickly and overwhelmed the peaceful political process.

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

  • Tiberius Gracchus: Tribune in 133 BC

  • Land Reform: Passed a law that would break up large estates.

    • Technically enforced old laws and compensated nobles for their land.

  • Law Breaking: Broke the laws of Rome to get what he wanted.

    • Such as running for a second term as tribune.

  • Death: Killed in a riot led by the Senate, in which 300 people died.

Political Violence by 100BC

  • Politically Motivated Gangs: Intimidated voters and even assassinated politicians.

  • Soldier Support: Soldiers supported their politician/commanders.

  • Saturninus and Glaucia Incident: In that year two politicians (Saturninus and Glaucia) tried to steal an election.

    • When that failed, they tried to seize the capitol building.

    • After they were captured, an angry mob stoned them to death.

Rise of Private Armies: Gaius Marius

  • Consul: Consul in 107 BC.

  • Army Creation: Raised his own army to defend Rome.

  • Hiring Unemployed: Hired the unemployed around Rome.

    • They would be paid with land from public expense after they won.

  • Consulship: Became Consul 7 times, which was illegal.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

  • Consul: Consul in 88 BC.

  • March on Rome: Marched on Rome to defend his right to command an army.

  • Dictator: Dictator for 3 years.

  • Political Purge: Killed thousands of political enemies.

  • Senate Power: Gave power to the Senate and retired.

Julius Caesar

  • Roman Demagogue: The last and greatest of Roman demagogues.

  • Military Leader: One of the great military leaders of all time.

  • Popularity: Lavished money on his soldiers and the people of Rome.

  • Senate's Concern: Worried the Senate as his popularity grew.

Assassination and Aftermath

  • Murder of Julius Caesar: 44 BC

  • Conspiracy: As many as 60 people conspired to kill Caesar in the Senate house.

    • Many were his friends and allies

  • Temple of the Deified Julius: A temple built on the site of his funeral pyre.

Augustus, The First Emperor (27BC – a.d.14)

  • Age at Caesar's Death: Only 18 years old when Caesar was killed.

  • Problem Solver: Solved the problems that doomed the Republic.

  • Names and Titles:

    • Octavian: birth name

    • Caesar: adopted name

    • Augustus: title granted by the senate. Literally to be august or honored. A religious title.

    • Imperator: the Roman title of the absolute power of a general. The right to rule.

    • Princeps: first citizen (his preferred title)