Unit - 4 Psychology of relationships
Intergroup relations
Nature
It involves feeling, evaluation, belief and behaviour that group and their members have towards another group and its members.
The nature of intergroup relation is determined by psychological process associated with social categorisation by the personalities and motivation of group members and by the functional relationship between the groups.
Negative intergroup relation involves prejudice (-ve feeling and evaluation), stereotype (belief about group and their members) and discrimination (unfair treatment)
social categorisation
It involves identifying people on the basis of overt similarities and pre-assume group membership. This process involves more than distinguishing people by group membership.
The recognition of different group membership initiates number of biases that influence intergroup relations. When people are categorised into groups even the group have no obvious functional relationships, actual differences between members of same category tend to be minimum.
Individual differences and intergroup relations
In addition to difference in the strength of group identity, individual differences and values can influence nature of intergroup relations. Research indicates that authoritarian personality is associated with unusual respect for authority and hierarchy as well as strong distinction between in-group and out-group, some researchers found that people high on authoritative way have negative attitude towards members of other groups.
Social dominance theory
It assumes that people who are strongly identified with high status group and who see intergroup relations in term of group competition will be specially prejudiced and discriminating towards out-group.
Functional interdependency and intergroup relation
Whereas as social categorisation and individual difference approach to understand intergroup relation focus on how motivation and orientation of people, independent of actual relationship between groups can produce negative intergroup relation, other perspectives emphasize that intergroup relation is shaped by the functional relationship between the groups. Specifically cooperation between groups, positive intergroup relation, competition between groups, material resources and qualities promote discrimination between groups.
Theories based on functional relation point to competition and consequent perceived threat as a fundamental cause of intergroup prejudice and conflict.
Intergroup contact and intergroup relation
For more than 50 years contact hypothesis has represented most popular and effective strategies for promoting harmonious intergroup relation. This hypothesis suggest that simple contact between group is not sufficient to improve intergroup relation. For contact between groups to reduce conflict successfully the contact must involve equal status between the groups, cooperative intergroup interaction (rather than competitive), opportunities for personal growth among members, etc.
These conditions of intergroup contact are prominent element of specific strategies for improving intergroup relations.
Intergroup conflict
It refers to disagreement between members of at least 2 different groups.
There are numerous models that attempt to explain the emergence and persistence of intergroup conflict.
There are number of beliefs implicated in intergroup conflict, such as perception of superiority, injustice, distrust and helplessness transferred from one group to another.
Intergroup conflict has a number of aggravating factors such as group size, group composition, dependency and structural factors.
Intergroup conflict is a major factor that affects group level movement pattern and ultimately shape the evolution of group leading and society.
The first person to describe intergroup conflict was Thomas Hobbs. In his book ‘leviathan’ he argued that humans are innately selfish snd aggressive and will engage in conflict with others in order to survive.
From war between countries to battle between groups, intergroup conflict has always been a part of world
Models of conflict
Aggressor-defender model
this model involve 2 roles
aggressor or attacker who initiate a conflict or threatens action to gain some advantages (powers and resources)
defender respond to aggression and try to repel attack.
In this view one group see another group as aggressor, this could happen in a conflict including war between nations, strife between racial groups, controversies between scientists, etc.
The aggressor is motivated by illogical aims as a result aggressor increase their power to dominating other parties or groups (defender).
Conflict spiral model
this model state that conflict greets conflict. In turn each party extend and intensifies the conflict by reacting in a defensive way to other behaviour. consequently, a continuing spiral unfolds trapping both parties.
In this conflict’s perspective the initial source of friction may be mismatch of ideas, rather than focus on initial cause of conflict, this model describes the dynamic and indirect process by which individual or group find themselves caught in a spiral.
Structural change model
This model is concerned with the dynamic interaction between parties in the course of conflict. This view holds that certain enduring changes take place that initiate the conflict. Conflict is not static, it changes the social, economic, political structure of the parties involved. These changes can reinforce the conflict.
Stereotypes
It is a cluster of beliefs usually lacking a rational basis regarding the members of some group. The word ‘stereotype’ was first used by Walter Lipman in his book “Public Opinion” (1922).
According to Albrecht, Thomas & Chadwick (1980) “A stereotype is a belief about some particular trait being prevalent among all members of a social group. Whatever be the characteristic it is assumed to vest all people in that category. Therefore, all members of the group are perceived and understood alike.” From the above description it can be concluded that :
It is a set of belief used to categorise people.
Such categorisation is exaggerated and lacks in truth.
Some particular physical, social and cultural characteristics are ascertained which serve to identify people of that group.
It is assumed that a person will exhibit all the trait of that category simply because he is member of that group.
Characteristics
It is a mental picture or image about people of a community or category on the basis of which we ascribe traits or characteristics to people.
stereotype develop out of experiences with individuals of other community and are then extended to apply to all members of that community.
Development of stereotype
It is acquired.
A major cause of development of stereotypes is inadequate and improper experience and information about people of other group.
Experiences with handful of people of other community lead to formation of wrong notions about them and it is then generalised to all members of that community.
maintenance of stereotype
Socialisation → Process of socialisation plays an important role in the formation of stereotypes. Most important agent of socialisation are parents as they encourage their children to develop stereotypes, that will help them to deal with people of other community.
Imitation → In order to become an acceptable member of the community or society, we imitate beliefs, opinions and attitudes held by them without thinking their desirability and logical validity. As a result stereotypes are developed willingly or unwillingly.
Tradition and folkways → tradition and folkways play a key role in maintaining stereotypes by passing down fixed ideas and social norms through generations. These cultural practices often reinforce roles and expectations related to gender, class or race, making certain stereotypes seem natural or acceptable in society.
Social and cultural distance → it is another important factor as social distance prevents us from gaining right knowledge and information about people of other community and society. Similarly, due to cultural distance we lack knowledge about living style, habits, customs, beliefs, opinions and attitudes of people of other culture. This lack of correct knowledge and information about other people provides breeding ground for development and maintenance of stereotypes.
Prejudice
According to Secord and Backman “Prejudice is an attitude that predisposes a person to think, perceive, feel and act in favourable and unfavourable ways towards a group or its individual members.”
According to Baron & Byrne “Prejudice is generally a negative attitude towards the members of some social, ethnic or religious.”
There are 2 types -
Explicit prejudice → negative feeling about an out-group that are openly admitted and is very difficult to measure because of social acceptability.
Implicit prejudice → It is relatively automatic and unconscious in-group preference. It is measurable on the basis of race, age, religion, nationality.
Maintenance of prejudice
Status and power structure → the structure of relations between two groups in terms of relative status and power sometimes gives rise to prejudice.
Historical fact → prejudice develop out of history of economic conflict as well as from political power distribution among group of people. Historical incidents led to development of attitude which slowly takes form of prejudice.
Authoritarian personality → people with authoritarian personality exhibit rigid thinking, punitive tendency. These tendencies predispose individuals towards prejudice.