Enlightenment and Revolutions (1750-1900)

Revolutions (Political and Industrial) & Consequences of Industrialization

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 18th century advocating for reason and empirical evidence to reconsider accepted ideas and social institutions. This period emphasized the importance of individual rights, rational thought, and scientific inquiry.

Movements of Thought

  • European Renaissance (1400s): A cultural revival characterized by the rediscovery of Greco-Roman art, literature, and philosophy, which fostered a renewed interest in the individual and human potential.

  • European Scientific Revolution (1600s - 1700s): Marked by significant advancements in scientific thought, this era saw European scientists, such as Galileo and Newton, questioning the natural world through observation and experimentation rather than relying strictly on traditional teachings.

  • European Reformation (1500s): A religious movement initiated by figures like Martin Luther, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church; it emphasized personal faith and access to scriptures, which had profound implications for religious and political structures.

  • European Enlightenment (1700s): This movement expanded on the ideals of the Renaissance and Reformation by emphasizing the questioning of established norms, advocating for human rights, and promoting democratic ideals; key figures included Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke who challenged existing social institutions and hierarchies.

Progression of Enlightenment Thinking

  • Renaissance: Introduced Humanism, focusing on the potential of the individual and secular subjects in education.

  • Enlightenment Political Ideas: Advocated for individualism, proposing that each person is born with natural rights (life, liberty, and property), as famously articulated by John Locke. The ideals of sovereignty and self-determination emerged, challenging the legitimacy of absolute monarchies.

  • Enlightenment Applications: This era applied reason to human society, supporting Rationalism (thought and experimentation as key to knowledge) and Empiricism (knowledge through sensory experience).

  • Scientific Revolution: During the 17th century, the emphasis on empirical evidence led to the formulation of the scientific method, greatly advanced by thinkers like Francis Bacon. This shift laid the groundwork for modern science.

  • Protestant Reformation: Sparked by Martin Luther's thesis against church corruption, the Reformation advocated for salvation by faith and personal interpretation of the Bible.

  • Further Separation from Church Authority: The Enlightenment moved away from the need for religious authority in both personal belief and governance; key doctrines such as Deism emerged, proposing a non-interventionist creator.

Social Contract and General Will

The concept of the social contract, proposed by philosophers like Rousseau, posits that individuals consent to give up certain freedoms in exchange for the protection of their natural rights by the government. The general will represents the collective desires of the populace and guides governmental policies aimed at the common good.

Enlightenment Thinkers

  • "Philosophes": Enlightenment thinkers who utilized their influence to challenge and critique abuses of power across various social and political domains, often advocating for individual rights and rational governance.

  • Prominent Figures: John Locke emphasized government as a protector of rights; Voltaire championed freedom of speech and religion; Rousseau focused on the social contract and collective sovereignty; Montesquieu introduced the idea of separation of powers.

Political Effects

  • Conservatism: A reactionary movement led by wealthy landowners and nobility aimed at preserving traditional monarchies and societal structures.

  • Liberalism: A response from the European middle class seeking greater political power, particularly through elected parliaments, to represent a broader swath of society.

Influence on Political Revolutions

The Enlightenment's emphasis on rationalism, questioning of tradition, and advocacy for individual rights played a pivotal role in inspiring political upheaval across Europe and the Americas, contributing to revolutions such as the American Revolution (1775-1783) and the French Revolution (1789-1799).

Economic Enlightenment

  • Laissez Faire, Adam Smith, and Capitalism: Adam Smith's work advocated for free markets and free trade without government interference. Key principles include:

    • Law of Supply and Demand: Determines price based on availability and consumer interest.

    • Private Economic Decisions: Individuals are encouraged to make decisions based on personal interests, fostering competition and innovation.

    • Private Property and Profit Incentive: The belief that ownership of property and the pursuit of profits stimulate economic growth and individual prosperity.

This framework established the foundations for modern capitalist economies and shaped global industrialization processes that followed in the 19th century, leading to profound social, economic, and political transformations.