UNIT 0:
Science Practices
Biopsychosocial Approach: A model that integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illnesses.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Operational Definition: A clear, precise statement of how variables are measured or defined in a study.
Replication: The process of repeating a study to see if the original findings can be consistently reproduced.
Generalization: The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to settings, people, or times outside of the study.
Independent/Dependent Variables: The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is measured to observe the effect of the independent variable.
Confounding Variables: Other variables that may affect the dependent variable and can lead to erroneous conclusions.
Population: The entire group of individuals that researchers are interested in studying.
Random Selection: A method of selecting a sample from a population in which every individual has an equal chance of being chosen.
Random Sampling: A process of selecting a representative group from the population.
Random Assignment: Allocating participants to experimental conditions at random to minimize preexisting differences between groups.
Double-Blind Design: An experimental procedure in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who receives the experimental treatment.
Placebo Effect: Improvement in health or behavior not attributable to an active treatment, instead due to the individual's belief in the treatment.
Naturalistic Observation: A research method involving observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention.
Case Study: An in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event to explore the depth of a particular phenomenon.
Correlational Study: A type of research measuring the relationship between two variables; can show strength (closer to 1 or -1) and direction (positive or negative correlation).
Illusory Correlation: A perceived relationship that does not actually exist.
Experiments: Research methods that involve manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable.
Experimental and Control Groups: The experimental group receives the treatment, while the control group does not, serving as a comparison.
Cross-sectional Study: A study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.
Longitudinal Study: Research that follows the same subjects over a period of time to observe changes.
Meta-analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion.
Survey: A research method involving the collection of data from a pre-defined group of respondents.
Qualitative & Quantitative
Qualitative Research: Research that focuses on understanding and interpreting human behavior.
Quantitative Research: Research that involves numerical data and statistical analysis.
Descriptive & Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Statistical methods that summarize and describe the features of a data set.
Inferential Statistics: Techniques used to make generalizations or predictions about a population based on sample data.
Graphs and Distributions
Scatterplot: A graph that represents the relationship between two quantitative variables.
Bar Graph: A chart that presents categorical data with rectangular bars.
Central Tendencies: Measures of mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequently occurring value).
Normal Distribution: A bell-shaped curve representing a distribution where most values cluster around the mean; know the percentages for standard deviations (e.g., 68% within 1 SD, 95% within 2 SDs).
Skewed Distributions: Distributions that are not symmetrical; in skewed distributions, the mean, median, and mode differ (e.g., in a right-skewed distribution, the mean will be higher than the median).
Variance: A measure of the dispersion of a set of data points; standard deviation is the square root of variance.
Standard Deviation: A statistic that tells how spread out the numbers are in a data set; lower SD indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean.
Regression Towards the Mean: The phenomenon where extreme values on one measurement tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements.
Statistical Significance: A measure of whether the results of a study are likely to be true in the population from which the sample was drawn.
APA Ethical Principles
Informed Assent/Consent: Participants must understand the nature, risks, and benefits of the research before agreeing to participate.
Use of Deception: Sometimes used in research to prevent bias, but must be justified and participants must be debriefed afterward.
Protection from Harm: Ensuring that participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks or harm.
Confidentiality: Ensuring that personal information about participants is kept private.
Unit 1A: Biological Bases of Behavior
Biological Bases of Behavior
Nature vs. Nurture: A debate concerning the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development and behavior.
Plasticity/Neural Plasticity: The ability of the brain to change and adapt as a result of experience, learning, or injury, facilitating the formation of new neural connections.
Neuroadaptation: Changes in the nervous system's sensitivity that occur in response to prolonged exposure to a stimulus, often leading to tolerance.
Twin Studies: Research designs used to study the influence of genetics and environment by comparing behaviors and traits in identical and fraternal twins.
Genetic Predisposition: An increased likelihood of developing a particular trait or condition based on genetic makeup.
Evolutionary Approach: A theoretical perspective emphasizing the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior, often linked to natural selection.
Natural Selection: The process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population based on their advantages in promoting survival and reproduction.
Behavioral Genetics: A field of study examining the interplay between genetics and behavior, focusing on how genetic variations impact psychological traits.
Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence, often influenced by environmental factors.
Heritability: A statistic that quantifies the proportion of variation in a trait among individuals in a population that is due to genetic differences.
Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genetic transmission.
Endocrine System
Pituitary Gland: Often referred to as the 'master gland,' it regulates various endocrine functions by releasing hormones that control other glands.
Adrenal Glands: Glands located on top of the kidneys that produce hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline, involved in stress response and metabolism.
Melatonin: A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms.
Central vs Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprised of the brain and spinal cord, it processes and integrates information.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The part of the nervous system outside the CNS, consisting of sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
Autonomic Nervous System: A division of the PNS that controls involuntary bodily functions, including the heart and digestive system.
Sympathetic Nervous System: A division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'fight or flight' response, increasing heart rate and energy mobilization.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: A division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes 'rest and digest' functions, conserving energy and lowering heart rate.
Somatic Nervous System: A division of the PNS that controls voluntary movements by activating skeletal muscles.
Spinal Reflex: An involuntary and automatic response to a sensory stimulus, managed by spinal cord circuits without direct involvement of the brain.
Sensory Neurons: Neurons that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
Interneurons: Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system, playing a crucial role in reflexes and processing information.
Motor Neurons: Neurons that send signals from the central nervous system to initiate movement in muscles and glands.
Myelin Sheath: A fatty layer that insulates axons, facilitating faster transmission of electrical signals along the neuron.
Axon: The long, slender part of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons or muscles.
Dendrites: Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.
Synapses: The junctions through which neurons communicate with each other, involving the transmission of neurotransmitters.
Multiple Sclerosis: A disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting nerve signal transmission and leading to various symptoms.
Action/Resting Potential: Action Potential: A rapid change in the electrical charge of a neuron, occurring when a neuron fires and sends information. Resting Potential: The state of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting information, maintaining a negative charge inside compared to outside.
All-or-None Response: The principle that a neuron either sends a full action potential or none at all; there is no partial response.
Depolarization: The process during an action potential when the membrane potential becomes less negative, often leading to a firing event in the neuron.
Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after the signal has been transmitted.
Glial Cells
Glial Cells: Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play roles in homeostasis and information transmission.
Substance Use Terms
Tolerance: A condition in which a person requires a larger dose of a substance to achieve the same effect as previously experienced due to adaptations in the body or brain.
Withdrawal: Symptoms that occur upon reduction or cessation of the intake of a substance that the body has become dependent on.
Psychological vs Physical Dependence: Psychological Dependence: A condition where an individual feels compelled to use a substance to cope with psychological stressors. Physical Dependence: A condition where an individual develops a tolerance and experiences withdrawal symptoms when the substance is not used.
Antagonists vs Agonists: Antagonists: Substances that block or inhibit the effects of neurotransmitters. Agonists: Substances that activate or mimic the action of neurotransmitters, enhancing their effects.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses from one neuron to another.
Dopamine: A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor functions; imbalances can lead to disorders like Parkinson's or schizophrenia.
Serotonin: A neurotransmitter implicated in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite; low levels are often associated with depression.
Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action, learning, and memory; it plays a critical role in communicating between neurons and muscles.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers, often released in response to stress or pain.
Epinephrine: Also known as adrenaline, it is a hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the body's fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate and energy availability.
Hallucinogens: Psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, creating visual or auditory hallucinations.
Depressants: Substances that reduce neural activity and slow down bodily functions, often used to alleviate anxiety or induce sleep.
Stimulants: Drugs that increase neural activity and arousal, boosting mood, attention, and energy levels.
Opiates: Drugs derived from opium that are used for pain relief but can be highly addictive.
Alcohol: A depressant that affects the central nervous system, impairing cognitive and motor functions.
Sleeping Pills: Medications designed to aid sleep, often classified as sedatives or depressants.
Cocaine: A powerful stimulant drug that increases energy, alertness, and feelings of euphoria, but can have severe negative health consequences.
Methamphetamine: An extremely addictive stimulant that can lead to significant physical and mental health issues.
Caffeine: A mild stimulant commonly consumed in coffee and tea, which can increase alertness and reduce fatigue.
Brain Structure and Function
Contralaterality/Lateralization: Refers to the phenomenon where one side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body, with specific functions often localized in one hemisphere.
Hemispheric Specialization: The idea that the left and right hemispheres of the brain have different functions and cognitive strengths; for instance, the left is often associated with language and analytical tasks, while the right is linked to creativity and spatial abilities.
Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself and form new connections in response to learning, experience, or injury.
Corpus Callosum: A band of neural fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them.
Split Brain Surgery: A procedure that severs the corpus callosum to alleviate severe epilepsy; studies by researchers like Gazzaniga have explored how each hemisphere functions independently following this surgery, providing insights into lateralization.
Prosopagnosia: A neurological condition characterized by an inability to recognize faces, often linked to damage in the fusiform gyrus of the temporal lobe.
Brain Location
Occipital Lobe: Located at the back of the brain, responsible for visual processing.
Parietal Lobe: Located at the top of the brain, involved in processing sensory information and spatial orientation.
Temporal Lobe: Located on the sides of the brain, associated with hearing, memory, and language comprehension.
Frontal Lobe: Located at the front of the brain, responsible for executive functions, decision-making, and motor control.
Limbic System: A complex set of structures located deep in the brain that regulates emotions and drives; includes key structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
Wernicke’s Area: Located in the left temporal lobe, it is involved in language comprehension.
Broca’s Area: Located in the left frontal lobe, it is crucial for speech production and language processing.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain, involved in higher cognitive functions including sensory perception, thought, and decision-making.
Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital lobe, responsible for processing visual information.
Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the parietal lobe, it processes sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, and pain.
Motor Cortex: Located in the frontal lobe, it is responsible for planning and executing voluntary movements.
Other Key Structures
Amygdala: A part of the limbic system involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus: A small region of the brain that regulates vital functions, including temperature, hunger, and the hormonal system.
Hippocampus: A part of the limbic system important for memory formation and spatial navigation.
Angular Gyrus: Located in the parietal lobe, involved in language processing, spatial cognition, and attention.
Thalamus: Acts as a relay station for information coming into the brain, processing sensory inputs before they reach the cortex.
Cerebellum: Situated at the back of the brain, it is involved in coordination, balance, and fine motor control.
Medulla: Located at the base of the brainstem, it controls autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Reticular Formation: A network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a key role in regulating wakefulness and sleep.
Technology for Brain Research
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A non-invasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of organs and tissues inside the body, including the brain.
CT (Computed Tomography): A type of imaging that utilizes X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body, helping diagnose conditions related to the brain.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography): An imaging technique that shows how tissues and organs function, often used to detect cancer and examine brain activity.
fMRI (Functional MRI): A type of MRI that measures and maps brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen consumption in the brain.
EEG (Electroencephalogram): A test that measures electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp, often used to diagnose epilepsy and other conditions affecting brain activity.
Lesion Studies: Research involving the study of individuals with brain damage or injury, helping to identify the functions of various brain regions based on observed impairments.
Unit 1B: Biological Bases of Behavior
Consciousness and Sleep
Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think, perceive, and respond to one's surroundings and internal thoughts.
Circadian Rhythms: Natural, internal processes that regulate the sleep-wake cycle and other physiological processes, roughly following a 24-hour cycle.
Hypothalamus-Pituitary Gland-Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: A system that regulates circadian rhythms; the hypothalamus and suprachiasmatic nucleus communicate to control the pituitary gland’s release of hormones that affect sleep and other bodily functions.
Sleep Cycle: The pattern of alternating stages of NREM and REM sleep that occurs multiple times during a night's sleep.
Brain Waves: Electrical impulses in the brain, classified by frequency and amplitude, including alpha, beta, delta, and theta waves.
NREM Stages:
NREM-1 (N1): The lightest stage of sleep, a transition between wakefulness and sleep.
NREM-2 (N2): A deeper sleep stage characterized by sleep spindles and reduced heart rate.
NREM-3 (N3): The deepest stage of sleep, crucial for restorative rest and growth.
Hypnagogic Sensations: Vivid sensations that can occur when falling asleep, such as the feeling of falling or floating.
REM Sleep ("Paradoxical Sleep"): A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, and increased brain activity, resembling wakefulness.
REM Rebound: The phenomenon where a person experiences increased amounts of REM sleep following sleep deprivation.
Freud’s Theory of Dreaming (Wish Fulfillment): The notion that dreams represent unconscious desires and fulfill repressed wishes.
Information Processing Theory of Dreaming: The view that dreams help organize and process daily experiences and information.
Physiological Theory of Dreaming: The idea that dreaming is the brain's way of processing and synthesizing neural activity.
Activation-Synthesis (Theory of Dreaming): A theory suggesting that dreams result from the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.
Sleep Apnea: A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breaths during sleep.
Insomnia: A condition marked by difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: A neurological disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.
Sensation and Perception
Sensation vs Perception: Sensation refers to the process of detecting physical stimuli, while perception is the interpretation and organization of sensory information.
Selective Attention: The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.
Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected object when attention is engaged on another task.
Parallel Processing: The ability to process multiple aspects of a problem simultaneously (e.g., color, motion, shape).
Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.
Difference Threshold: The minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time, also known as just noticeable difference (JND).
Subliminal Threshold: The level of stimuli below the conscious awareness threshold, not detectable by the average person.
Weber’s Law: The principle that the change needed to notice a difference is proportional to the original stimulus intensity.
Wave Frequency & Amplitude: Frequency refers to the number of waves produced in a given time period, while amplitude refers to the height of the waves, related to perceived intensity.
Sensory/Stimulus Adaptation: The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a result of constant exposure.
Sensory/Stimulus Habituation ("Perceptual Adaptation"): The process whereby sensory responses decrease over time due to repeated exposure to the same stimulus.
Transduction: The conversion of one form of energy into another, such as transforming sensory stimuli into neural impulses.
Cocktail Party Effect: The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.
Bottom-Up Processing: Processing sensory information from the environment to build perception from the ground up.
Top-Down Processing: Perception driven by cognition; where existing knowledge influences how we perceive information.
Vision and the Eye
Accommodation: The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus on near or distant objects.
Lens: A transparent structure in the eye that helps refract light to be focused on the retina.
Fovea: The central point in the retina where visual acuity is highest due to a high concentration of cones.
Photoreceptors (Rods & Cones): Cells in the retina that convert light into neural signals; rods are more sensitive to light, while cones are responsible for color vision.
Blind Spot: The area on the retina where the optic nerve exits, containing no photoreceptors; thus, it is insensitive to light.
Bipolar Cells: Intermediate cells in the retina that transmit signals from photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
Ganglion Cells: Neurons in the retina that receive signals from bipolar cells and send information to the brain via the optic nerve.
Optic Nerve: The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
Feature Detectors: Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as edges or angles.
Hue: The aspect of color that is determined by the wavelength of light.
Brightness/Intensity: The perceived intensity of light, which is influenced by the amplitude of the light wave.
Trichromatic Theory of Vision ("Young-Helmholtz"): A theory proposing that the retina contains three types of color receptors sensitive to red, green, and blue light, which combine to produce other colors.
Opponent-Process Theory of Vision (Negative Afterimages): A theory suggesting that color perception is controlled by opposing pairs of colors; activation of one color in the pair inhibits the other.
Auditory Processing
Frequency Theory: The theory that the frequency of the auditory nerve's impulses corresponds to the frequency of the sound wave, allowing us to perceive pitch.
Place Theory: The idea that different parts of the cochlea respond to different frequencies, explaining how we perceive pitch.
Volley Theory: A modification of frequency theory that proposes groups of neurons can fire in a pattern to process higher frequencies of sound.
Auditory Canal: The tube through which sound travels to the eardrum, part of the outer ear.
Unit 2: Cognition
Cognition and Memory
Dual Processing: The principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
Proactive Interference: A phenomenon in which previously learned information interferes with the retrieval of new information.
Retroactive Interference: A phenomenon in which new information interferes with the retrieval of previously learned information.
Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory, influencing perception and behavior.
Concept: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people, which helps organize information.
Prototype: A mental image or best example of a category, used to make quick judgments about objects or events.
Divergent Thinking: A type of creative thinking that generates multiple possible solutions to a problem, encouraging brainstorming and exploration.
Convergent Thinking: A type of critical thinking that narrows down multiple ideas to find a single best solution.
Fixation: The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective; can refer to:
Mental Set: A tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has worked in the past.
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual function, hindering problem solving.
Algorithm: A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem, usually involving a step-by-step process.
Heuristic: Simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; includes:
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they seem to represent or match a particular prototype.
Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we assume they are common.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
Belief Perseverance: The phenomenon of holding on to one’s beliefs even when they are contradicted by evidence.
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred; often referred to as the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect.
Framing Effect: The way information is presented (framed) can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Overconfidence: A bias in which a person's subjective confidence in their judgments is greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments.
Memory Processes
Automatic Processing: The unconscious encoding of information, such as space, time, and frequency, which occurs without intentional effort.
Effortful Processing: The encoding of information that requires conscious effort and attention, often involving rehearsal or active learning.
Parallel Processing: The ability to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously, enabling faster and more efficient cognition.
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: The three fundamental processes of memory:
Encoding: The transformation of information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory: The initial, brief storage of sensory information, which includes two types:
Iconic: Visual sensory memory, lasting a fraction of a second.
Echoic: Auditory sensory memory, lasting 3 to 4 seconds.
Short-Term Memory: A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a brief period, typically around 20 seconds without rehearsal.
Working Memory: A form of short-term memory that actively processes information; includes:
Phonological Loop: The component responsible for verbal and auditory information processing.
Visuospatial Sketchpad: The component responsible for visual and spatial information processing.
Long-Term Memory: The type of memory that can store vast amounts of information indefinitely, divided into:
Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory for skills and tasks, such as riding a bike.
Explicit Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.
Memory Subtypes
Procedural Memory: A type of implicit memory that enables us to perform tasks and skills that we have learned, often without conscious awareness.
Explicit Memory: Memory of information that can be consciously recalled, such as facts or events.
Long-Term Potentiation: A biological process thought to be the basis of learning and memory, involving the strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
Flashbulb Memory: A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.
Recognition vs Recall: Recognition involves identifying previously learned information (e.g., multiple-choice tests) whereas recall involves retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay tests).
Semantic Memory: A type of explicit memory that includes facts and general knowledge about the world.
Memory Techniques
Chunking: The process of breaking down complex information into smaller, manageable units (chunks) to enhance retention.
Serial Position Effect: The tendency to recall the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list better than those in the middle.
Spacing Effect: The phenomenon where information is better retained when learned over spaced intervals rather than crammed.
Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood.
Context-Dependent Memory: The improved recall of information when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding.
State-Dependent Memory: The improved recall of information when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed.
Interleaving: A study technique where different topics or subjects are mixed, enhancing learning and retention.
Memory Retrieval and Research
Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help access stored information, making recall easier.
Elizabeth Loftus: Renowned for her research on the malleability of memory, including the misinformation effect and studies on memory reconstruction (e.g., auto crash study).
Hermann Ebbinghaus: Known for the
Unit 3A: Development
Developmental Psychology
Developmental Norms: Standardized milestones and averages regarding the typical progression of physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development in children and adolescents.
Maturation: The biologically-driven process of development during which an individual grows and develops according to predetermined genetic patterns.
Teratogen: Any factor that can cause malformation or developmental abnormalities in a fetus, typically environmental agents such as drugs, alcohol, or infections.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy that leads to physical and cognitive deficits in the child.
Temperament: The innate characteristics that influence a person's emotional reactivity, behavior, and self-regulation, generally observed early in life.
Primary vs Secondary Sex Characteristics:
Primary Sex Characteristics: Physical features directly involved in reproduction (e.g., ovaries and testes).
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Features that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., breast development and facial hair).
Pruning: The process of eliminating excess neural connections in the brain during development, enhancing the efficiency of neural networks.
Attachment and Development
Imprinting: A rapid learning process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period shortly after birth.
Attachment: The emotional bond between a child and their caregiver, crucial for development.
Harlow’s Monkey Study: A study demonstrating the importance of caregiver attachment, showing that infant monkeys preferred a soft, nurturing cloth mother over a wire mother that provided food.
Secure vs Insecure Attachment:
Secure Attachment: Characterized by a strong bond where children feel safe and comfortable with their caregiver.
Insecure Attachment: Exhibited by anxiety or avoidance in relationships, often stemming from inconsistent caregiving.
Separation Anxiety: The distress experienced by infants/children when separated from their primary caregiver.
Egocentrism: In developmental psychology, the inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others, commonly observed in young children.
Gender Schema: A cognitive framework that organizes and interprets information related to gender roles and characteristics.
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: A framework proposing four stages of cognitive development:
Sensorimotor Stage: (0-2 years) where infants learn through sensory experience and manipulation of objects.
Preoperational Stage: (2-7 years) characterized by the emergence of language, egocentrism, and symbolic thinking but lacking logical reasoning.
Concrete Operational Stage: (7-11 years) where children gain a better understanding of mental operations and can think logically about concrete events.
Formal Operational Stage: (12 years and older) where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.
Assimilation: The cognitive process by which a person integrates new information into existing schemas without changing the schema.
Accommodation: The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.
Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived, typically developing by 8-12 months of age.
Conservation: The ability to understand that physical quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or appearance, developing during the concrete operational stage.
Parenting Styles
Authoritative Parenting: A style characterized by high responsiveness and high demands, leading to children who are self-reliant and socially competent.
Permissive Parenting: A style that is indulgent and lenient, with few demands placed, which can lead to children lacking self-discipline.
Authoritarian Parenting: A strict style with high demands and low responsiveness, resulting in children who may be obedient but often lack social skills.
Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: A theory proposing eight stages of psychosocial development, emphasizing the impact of social experiences on development throughout the lifespan.
Role Confusion: A state experienced during adolescence where one struggles to identify their personal values and sense of self.
Stagnation: A period in adulthood where individuals may feel unproductive and disconnected from society.
Generativity: The concern for establishing and guiding the next generation and contributing to society.
Integrity: The reflection on one’s life and deriving a sense of fulfillment and purpose.
Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities
Social Clock: The cultural and social expectations of when certain life events should occur, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence:
Fluid Intelligence: The ability to think abstractly and reason quickly, often peaking in early adulthood.
Crystallized Intelligence: The accumulation of knowledge and skills gained over time, often improving with age.
Language Development
Phonemes: The smallest units of sound in a language that can differentiate meaning.
Semantics: The study of meaning in language, focusing on how words and phrases convey meaning.
Auditory Processing
Eardrum: A thin membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves, transmitting sound to the middle ear bones (ossicles).
Auditory Nerve: The nerve that carries auditory information from the inner ear to the brain for processing.
Cochlea: A spiral-shaped, fluid-filled organ in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into neural signals; the structure contains the basilar membrane where hair cells reside.
Basilar Membrane: The membrane in the cochlea that contains hair cells, which are sensory receptors responsible for converting sound vibrations into electrical signals.
Cochlear Implant: A medical device that bypasses damaged hair cells in the cochlea and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to provide a sense of sound to individuals with severe hearing loss.
Conduction Deafness: Hearing loss caused by problems with the mechanical parts of the ear (outer or middle ear), preventing sound from being conducted to the inner ear.
Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss resulting from damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve, affecting the transmission of sound signals to the brain.
Sensory and Pain Perception
Vestibular Sense: The sense of balance and spatial orientation, primarily provided by the vestibular sacs located in the inner ear.
Kinesthesis: The sense of body position and movement that provides feedback about the position and motion of body parts.
Chemical Senses: The senses of taste and smell that detect chemical stimuli in the environment.
Olfaction: The sense of smell, involving the detection of airborne chemical molecules by receptors in the nasal cavity.
Nociceptors: Specialized sensory receptors that detect painful stimuli, contributing to the perception of pain.
Phantom Limb: The phenomenon where individuals experience sensations, including pain, in a limb that has been amputated.
Gate Control Theory of Pain: A theory proposing that the perception of pain is controlled by a "gate" mechanism in the spinal cord that can either allow or block pain signals from reaching the brain.
Blindsight: A condition in which individuals with damage to their primary visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness of them.
Sensory Interaction and Perception
Sensory Interaction: The phenomenon where one sensory modality influences another (e.g., taste being affected by smell).
McGurk Effect: A perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception, where visual input can influence auditory perception.
Synesthesia: A condition where stimulation of one sensory modality leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory modality (e.g., hearing colors).
Phi Phenomenon: The optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession (e.g., in movies).
Perceptual Processing
Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by context, expectations, and prior experiences.
Depth Perception: The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge the distance of objects.
Visual Cliff: An experimental setup used to study depth perception in infants, featuring a glass surface over a drop to test if they perceive depth.
Monocular Depth Cues: Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye, including:
Linear Perspective: The convergence of parallel lines as they recede into the distance.
Interposition: When one object partially obscures another, indicating that the obscured object is farther away.
Relative Size: The perception that larger objects are closer than smaller objects when they are known to be the same size.
Binocular Depth Cues: Depth cues that require both eyes for perception, including:
Retinal Disparity: The slight difference in images between the two eyes, providing depth information.
Convergence: The inward turning of the eyes when focusing on a close object, providing depth information.
Gestalt Principles: Principles that describe how we organize visual information, including:
Figure & Ground: The distinction between an object (figure) and its background (ground).
Proximity: Objects that are close together are perceived as belonging together.
Similarity: Similar items are grouped together in perception.
Closure: The tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete.
Continuity: The tendency to perceive continuous patterns rather than disjointed ones.
Perceptual Constancy: The ability to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input (e.g., color, shape & size constancy).
Context Effects: The influence of environmental factors on perception, which can affect how we interpret information.
Moon Illusion: An optical illusion in which the moon appears larger when it is near the horizon than when it is higher in the sky, influenced by visual context.