The Quest for Political Stability
1625 Parliament
Charles took the throne in 1625 with an empty treasury
parliament refused his right to collect excise tax to fund the war against Spain - they proposed a year long grant so Charles would be forced to regularly call parliament
a poor naval expedition led by Buckinghams nominee and parliament discussed impeachment - Charles dissolved parliament
1626 Parliament and Prerogative rule
Charles called another parliament in 1626 → lack of awareness about Buckinghams impeachment
parliament set aside the issues of subsidies to launch an attack on Buckingham
Charles dissolved parliament without any grant of taxation and demanded a forced loan from all taxpayers → challenged law + shows tyranny
1627 - five knights who refused to pay the loan had been imprisoned
Confrontation and Dissolution
Charles called another parliament to provide funds for national defence
at war with France and Spain, Charles seeked further subsidies → parliament prepared the Petition of Right, asking him to reverse the five knights case and demanded no future forced loans or imprisonment without trial
Charles prepared a revised version of this that asserted his right to collect taxes without parliamentary approval → this diminished any chances of reconciliation between Charles and parliament
Buckingham was assasinated in 1629 due to military failures and power over Charles → Parliament reassembled to celebrate and Charles dissolved parliament
Charles’s dissolution of parliament and personal rule was indicative of him trying to rule by absolutism
Government and Finance 1630-36
Charles signed the Treaty of Madrid in 1630, ending the war with Spain
→ reduced annual spending on war from £500,000 to less than £70,000
1634, Charles issued a monopoly on soap production, claiming it would improve quality and supply → caused resentment and inflation which benefited the king’s revenues
Charles established the levying of ship money across the country, worth £200,000 a year
→ seen as illegal taxation and tyranny
by 1636, this tax provided Charles with regular income to the point where he did not need to call parliament
Reaction and resistance 1636-40
1636, first organised resistance from a group of Puritan gentry and nobility
John Hampden refused to pay his ship money in 1636 and Charles ran a test case
→ Charles won and in short-term, got the legal backing to keep his ship money but in the long-term it increased resentment toward Personal rule and strengthened the idea that Charles was abusing prerogative powers
1637, 3 Puritan writers who published attacks on the government were imprisoned
The Scottish Troubles and Collapse of Personal Rule
1636 and 1637, Charles issued a book of Canons and the English Prayer book respectively to the Scottish clergy which limited religious freedom
→ led to a riot in Edinburugh to defend their religious rights
both Charles and the Scottish Covenant raised armies, but Charles was lacking money and realised he couldn’t win → he signed the Treaty of Berwick in 1639, ending the First Bishops’ War
gentry were unhappy with Charles trying to fund a war with the Scots → a taxpayers strike meant Charles was advised to call a parliament
this parliament questioned various acts of Charles’s personal rule but instead of making concessions, he demanded money from parliament and ended up dissolving it after 3 weeks
Charles collected a poorly organised force to fight the Second Bishops’ War → most of his army sympathised with the Scots and was defeated at the Battle of Newburn → led to the Treaty of Ripon in which he was forced to pay the Scots £850 per day
Parliament attacks the prerogative 1640-41
Long Parliament assembled in 1640 - a group called Pym’s Junto was opposed to the king's policies
Wentworth and Laud were arrested in 1640
1641 - parliament introduced the Triennial Act, which meant Charles had to call parliament at least once every 3 years
Stafford was beheaded via an Act of Attainder
Pym pushed for constitutional change to increase parliaments power and limit the arbitrary authority of the King
The build-up to war 1641-42
there was a rumour that Irish Catholics were attacking Protestants in Ireland → worsened distrust of Charles as he was already associated with Catholicism
there was also fear that Charles might use the army against parliament
January 1642, rumour that Pym was planning to impeach the queen and so Charles entered Commons with 300 soldiers to arrest opposition MPs such as Pym and Hampden → seen as tyrannical
June 1642, Parliament demanded major control over government, including influence over the king’s children → parliament want severe limits on royal power and hence peaceful compromise was becoming unrealistic
Victory of Parliament 1642-46
Charles had early advantage as he controlled much of England with gentry and noble support (and Prince Rupert top commander)
→ parliament initially weaker due to poorer military experience
1643, Pym introduced excise tax to fund parliament’s war effort
secured Solemn League and Covenant with Scotland → military support for parliamentary forces
→ major turning point as parliament gained a stronger military position
New Model Army created in 1645 with Oliver Cromwell as cavalry commander - won Naseby in 1645 decisive parliamentary victory
→ New Model Army was the key reason Parliament won
Search for Settlement 1646-47
Charles surrendered to Scots in April 1646 and received settlement offers from Parliament and also Scots as they wanted to protect Presbyterian Church
Charles delayed his response as demands were extreme which weakened his own position
Parliamentary Divisions
parliament wanted major limits on royal power such as abolition of bishops and control of militia for 20 years → settlement became harder
radical Levellers wanted religious tolerance and political reform
soldiers mainly cared about unpaid wages
→ army became an independent political force and Parliament lost control of its own army
June 1647, Army take Charles and the army pushed for expulsion of Presbyterian MPs and political reform
→ army was intervening in politics
Politicisation of the Army
Leveller influence in the army increased, leading to demands for democracy and political reform
Putney Debates 1647 exposed major ideological divisions within Parliament between Levellers and army
Charles escaped and made a secret deal with the Scots in 1647 → increased distrust and confirmed Charles was still manipulating divisions rather than settling
Second Civil War + Charles I Execution
Charles’s alliance with the Scots triggered the Second Civil War 1648 but Cromwell crushed the threat quickly
→ military victory didn’t solve the political problem as Charles remained the core issue
many MPs still wanted negotiation though the army concluded Charles could never be trusted again
1648, Pride’s Purge as army removed MPs who supported further negotiation → created Rump Parliament + army openly controlling politics
Charles was tried by a High Court and executed in Jan 1649
→ unprecedented challenge to divine right monarchy
Rule of the Rump 1649-53
after Charles’s execution, the new regime lacked support from the start
England became a Commonwealth (republic) and the problem was this was a minority revolution
radical religious groups (Levellers, Ranters, Quakers, Fifth Monarchists) increased instability
govt. responded with respression rather than tolerance
Blasphemy Act 1650 restricted radical sects
→ the Rump created a new system but lacked legitimacy and struggled to unite the country
Failure of the Rump
Lack of support:
regime depended heavily on the army → no political power
local government support was weak as many elites remained unconvinced
Charles II gaining support in Scotland showed royalism was still a threat
Financial + Military pressure:
constant wars in Ireland, Scotland and against the Dutch drained money
monthly assesment raised to £90,000
revenue shortfall reached £700,000 by 1653
→ expensive military rule made stability harder
Reform failure:
Rump wanted reform but progress was slow - the Hale Commission 1651 proposed legal reform but recommendations were rejected
Acts passed fell from 149 (1649) to 51 (1652)
→ reform promises lost credibility
Army dominance:
army crushed Leveller threats and protected regime survival
but dependence on the army weakened civilian legitimacy
Cromwell increasingly frustrated with parliamentary inaction
Nominated Assembly/Barebones Parliament 1653
Cromwell dissolved the Rump as it was innefective and failed to deliver reform - he replaced it with a nominated assembly meant to create a more godly government
some reforms happened such as legal help for debtors and civil marriage allowed but deep division emerged as radicals wanted major godly reform and conservatives wanted to protect social order
→ Barebones parliament failed because Cromwell could not balance reform with political stability and radical change scared conservatives
Instrument of Government + First Protectorate Parliament 1654-55
1653, first written constitution (Instrument of Government) - this created the Protectorate with Cromwell as Lord Protector
successes: 84 ordinances and infrastructure improvements
core issue unchanged: dominant army influence and republicans resenting Cromwell’s personal power
parliament challenged Cromwell’s authority and refused cooperation - Cromwell dissolved it in 1655
→ appeared constitutional but power depended on military backing
Rule of the Major-Generals 1655-56
England divided into 11 military districts under major-generals for stronger local control, suppression of royalism and enforcement of moral reform
→ improved security in short term but looked like a military dictatorship
hence, effective for control, damaging for legitimacy which was a struggle already
Second Protectorate Parliament + Humble Petition and Advicce 1656-57
Cromwell recognised military rule was unpopular
Parliament offered Humble Petition and Advice in 1657
aimed to restore stability through more traditional govt:
Cromwell offered crown
Lords + Commons restored
parliament greater say over army
→ showed republican experiment drifting back toward monarchy style government as they were more stable but Cromwell refused due to army opposition
→ best chance for lasting settlement but army resistance blocked stability
Collapse of Protectorate 1658-60
Cromwell died in 1658 → regime immediately weakened
Richard Cromwell suceeded but he lacked political experience and military respect + authority
1659, army forced Richard out
political system rapidly collapsed and General Monck intervened and restored Parliament → led directly to Restoration in 1660
→ Protectorate stability depended too much on Cromwell personally
Declaration of Breda 1660
Charles II made promises to make restoration acceptable:
cooperation with parliament
general pardon (except regicides)
army pay addressed
some religious toleration
→ made restoration politically easier as Charles appeared moderate
Restoration Settlement 1660-64
traditional monarchy restored
Lords + Church of England restored
Act of Indemnity and Oblivion: limited punihsment for Interregnum figures
→ created short-term stability by restoring familiar institutions
Problems with the Settlement
limits of royal prerogative unclear
relationship between king and parliament not fully defined
Militia Act 1661 meant king was supreme over army (although Civil war was due to military control)
revised Triennial Act 1664 led to weaker enforcement of parliamentary meetings
→ reopened the old issue of could the king rule without Parliament?
Cavaliar Parliament
strongly royalist/anti Puritan parliament
this parliament sought revenge rather than reconciliation
→ weakened chances of settlement
Religious Settlement/Church Conflict
major split between:
Presbyterians → wanted more inclusive Protestant church
High Church Anglicans → wanted strict restoration of old church structure
Latitudinarians → moderate middle ground
High Church Anglicans won which led to:
Corporation Act 1661 → removed non Anglican influence from local govt.
Act of Uniformity 1662 → forced Anglican conformity, 1800 ministers expelled
→ instead of healing religious division, settlement deepened it
Clarendon Code/Treatment of Dissent
Further anti-Puritan laws:
Quaker Act and Conventicle act + strict punishment for worship outside Anglican Church
→ short term - strengthened Anglican control
→ long term - dissent became politically important and persecution unified Protestant dissent groups
→ attempt to crush dissent preserved and strengthened opposition
Charles II vs Parliament 1665-81
Financial problems:
Charles never had enough independent income, keeping him reliant on parliament
traditional royal income sources were gone after the civil war
e.g. income was around £1.2m a year
→ financial weakness meant Charles could not rule independently, keeping conflict w parliament alive
Why conflict returned
restoration settlement hadnt clearly defined power between king and parliament
charles believed strongly in divine right
parliament expected greater influence after restoration
→ conflict returned because constitutional issues had been delayed, not solved
Renewed suspicions 1665-78
religion:
Charles pushed religious toleration, but many suspected this was to help Catholics → his background of catholic family connections increased distrust
foreign policy:
Charles pro-French policy worsened suspicion
Second Anglo-Dutch War damaged credibility (Dutch humiliation at Medway Raid 1667)
political impact:
Clarendon removed
James, Charles’s brother converted to Catholicisim in 1668 → made succession fears worse
Treaty of Dover 160 confirmed fears of secret Catholic/French influence
Declaration of Indulgence crisis 1672-73
Charles tried to suspend anti Catholic / anti-dissenter laws
parliament opposed as it included Catholics and they claimed Charles was using royal power to suspend law
→ even MPs who supported toleration opposed this as it challenged parliamentary sovereignty
Financial Weakness
Charles needed parliament for money
Stop of the Exchequer 1672 showed weakness
parliament forced withdrawal of Indulgence in return for funds
→ showed parliament could still control Charles through finance
Test Act 1673
required officeholders to reject Catholicism
→ major political humilitation for Charles → confirmation that Catholicism was now a central political issue
Danby shift
Charles appointed Danby, a strong Anglican minister
Foreign policy became more anti-French / pro-Dutch
attempt to rebuild trust with parliament
→ alientated toleration supporters and helped create organised opposition
Popish Plot 1678
false catholic conspiracy claim by Titus Oates, despite weak evidence, widely believed due to existing Catholic fears already high + James’s conversion + Charles’s background
led to mass hysteria and succession issue intensifying
→ turned suspicion into full political panic
Exclusion Crisis 1679-81
emergence of organised factions:
whigs → exclude James (feared Catholic absolutism and England becoming authoritarian + Catholic)
tories → defend James
huge significance: shaping early party politics
Charles response
defended James aggressively:
dissolved parliament repeatedly
pressured Lords
moved parliament to Oxford, away from Whig influence
used French money for financial independence (£100,000)
→ Charles won politically, but by doing so he increased distrust
James II and Collapse of Royal Power 1685
James inherited a strong position after Charles’s death in 1685 as:
Whig opposition crushed after Ry House Plot 1683
James had loyal parliament, strong finances, no immediate opposition
→ collapse came from his own actions
Personal rule + Catholic policies
James openly promote Catholicism, creating distrust
he bypassed normal constitutional limits:
Catholics appointed to army positions
→ direct attack on parliamentary sovereignty + rule of law
Declaration of Indulgence 1687+88
James granted religious toleration to Catholics + dissenters
on paper it was toleration
but in reality, many saw it as:
strenghtening Catholicisim
expansion of royal power
→ the issue was less toleration itself, more James forcing it through royal power
Seven Bishops crisis 1688
James ordered Declaration of Indulgence read in churches
7 bishops refused and they were prosecuted
→ James lost Anglican Church support → a terrible mistake
Birth of Catholic heir
before, many had tolerated James as Mary would succeed (Protestant)
then James had a son with Mary of Modena
→ prospect of permanent Catholic dynasty + urgency for action increased
→ this was the immediate trigger for revolution
Collapse of royal power / Glorious Revolution
7 leading political figures invited William of Orange to intervene → support came from across the political spectrum
→ shows opposition to James had become broad
James’s collapse
William landed in November 1688
James still had military resources but he hesitated and political legitimacy collapsed → James fled
→ James fell so fast because:
catholic heir, seven bishops crisis, William invasion
deeper: alienated Church, political elite, abused prerogative powers and created fears of absolutism
his religion created suspicion; his methods caused revolution