German Unification and the Rise of the Second Reich

Fundamental Political Ideologies and Social Structures

During the era of German unification, several competing ideologies and social classes shaped the political landscape. Nationalism emerged as a powerful force, characterized as the identification with one's own nation and the active support for its interests, frequently to the exclusion or direct detriment of the interests of other nations. In contrast, Liberalism sought to limit the influence of the church and the absolute power of the state, advocating for the establishment of republican government, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties. Socialism focused on the economic sphere, demanding worker ownership of the means of production alongside higher taxation to fund expanded social programs. Democrats specifically championed the cause of universal suffrage to ensure broader political participation. At the top of the social hierarchy in Prussia were the Junkers, who were members of the land-owning nobility. These individuals possessed vast estates that were maintained through the labor of peasants who lived with very few rights.

The Post-Napoleonic Order and the German Confederation

The formal process of reorganization began following the end of the Holy Roman Empire in $1806$. In $\text{September } 1814$, the Congress of Vienna was convened, where Klemens von Metternich established boundaries based on the old Holy Roman Empire. The primary purpose of this arrangement was to prevent the recurrence of a French-style revolution, primarily through the use of buffer states. In $\text{June } 1815$, this led to the creation of the German Confederation, also known as the Bund. This confederation was controlled by a Diet that was chaired by an Austrian representative. Austria maintained a firm grip on the confederation, as it held control over any potential changes to the constitution.

Conceptual Frameworks for Unification: Grossdeutschland and Kleindeutschland

Two primary visions for a unified Germany dominated the discourse: Grossdeutschland and Kleindeutschland. Grossdeutschland, or "large Germany," was a vision of a unified state that would be dominated by Austria. Conversely, Kleindeutschland, or "small Germany," envisioned a unified nation that excluded Austrian territory and was instead dominated by Prussia. The competition between these two models defined the power struggle between the two leading German states for much of the $\text{19th century}$.

Economic Consolidation and the Rise of the Zollverein

Prussia began to assert its influence through economic reforms and modernization. In $1818$, Prussia abolished $67$ internal customs barriers and established low tariffs, while simultaneously industrializing the Rhineland region. Although Metternich failed to create a federal defensive force in $1821$, Prussia successfully established the Zollverein, or Prussian Customs Union, in $1834$. This union gave Prussia economic control over the Rhineland, which served as the heart of German industrialization. The Zollverein carried significant political overtones in favor of Prussia, and notably, Austria did not join the union. By $1851$, Hannover also joined the Zollverein, which allowed Prussia to control the flow of trade to critical North Sea points.

Revolutionary Pressures and the Constitutional Crisis

Political tensions escalated in the $1830\text{s}$ and $1840\text{s}$. The Six Articles, enacted in $\text{June } 1832$, limited the rights of elected assemblies within the various states. Following poor harvests in $1846$ and $1847$, economic distress grew, and by $\text{October } 1847$, liberals were demanding more substantive policy changes. These pressures culminated in the Revolutions of $1848$, which were driven by the goals of liberalism, socialism, and nationalism with the intent to unify Germany under a formal constitution. In $\text{March } 1848$, the unrest forced Metternich into exile in Britain. During the same month, Ludwig I of Bulgaria abdicated his throne in favor of his son, and widespread protests occurred regarding the hardships of daily life. From $\text{May } 1848$ to $\text{June } 1849$, the Frankfurt Parliament met, though its members struggled to agree on the territorial extent of the proposed nation. In $\text{March } 1849$, the parliament agreed to establish an emperor-governor and offered the crown to Fredrich Wilhelm IV, an offer he famously refused. Following the collapse of these efforts, the Erfurt Union was created in $1850$.

The Regency of Wilhelm I and the Ascent of Otto von Bismarck

Leadership in Prussia shifted in $1858$ when Wilhelm I became the regent, eventually becoming the King of Prussia in $\text{January } 1861$. During this time, the Nationalverein was created in $1859$ to promote unification. In $\text{September } 1862$, Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the Prime Minister of Prussia. Bismarck was a Junker who was staunchly pro-Prussia, pro-monarchy, and pro-military. He was a practitioner of Realpolitik, a political philosophy that emphasized that consequences and practical outcomes were more important than morality or ideological purity.

Diplomatic Maneuvering and the War Against Denmark

Bismarck began his tenure by securing Prussia's diplomatic position. In $1863$, he provided domestic support to Russia during a Polish revolt to build future goodwill. That same year, the new Danish king, Christian IX, attempted to claim the territory of Schleswig. Bismarck manipulated the situation to draw Austria into a joint effort, leading to a war against Denmark in $\text{January } 1864$. This conflict was successfully concluded with the Gastein Convention in $\text{August } 1865$. Under the terms of the convention, Holstein was placed under Austrian administration, while Schleswig went to Prussia.

The Seven Weeks War and Austrian Displacement

To further the Kleindeutschland goal, Bismarck moved to isolate and defeat Austria. In $\text{October } 1865$, he met with Napoleon III and made vague promises regarding land and concessions to keep France neutral. By $\text{April } 1866$, he concluded a secret treaty with Italy so that Italian forces would distract Austria in the south. In $\text{June } 1866$, Bismarck instigated Austria into declaring war, leading to the Seven Weeks War. Although Austria overestimated its power, Prussia possessed superior weaponry, better tactics, and greater speed. The decisive encounter occurred at the Battle at Sadová. Following the defeat, Austria was reorganized into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In $\text{August } 1866$, the Treaty of Prague was signed. Bismarck ensured the peace terms were not harsh, as he believed Austria could be a useful future ally.

The Franco-Prussian War and the Unification of Germany

The final stage of unification involved a conflict with France that Bismarck had planned for years. In $1868$, Spanish Queen Isabella was forced to abdicate. Bismarck encouraged Prince Leopold to seek the throne to incite French anger. The subsequent Ems Telegram, which described a meeting between the King and the French ambassador, was edited by Bismarck to villainize the French and provoke them into conflict. France declared war on Prussia in $\text{June } 1870$. While Britain offered its support to Prussia, the campaign was costly; at the Battle of Gravelotte in $\text{August } 1870$, the Prussians suffered $200,000$ casualties. However, in $\text{September } 1870$, the Prussians won the Battle of Sedan near the Belgian border. Napoleon III surrendered to Bismarck and was forced to abdicate. By $1871$, the French were forced to surrender due to starvation. On $\text{January 18, 1871}$, German Unification was officially proclaimed, with Prussia remaining the dominant power. The conflict concluded with the Treaty of Frankfurt on $\text{May 10th, 1871}$, which required France to pay reparations totaling $\$5$ billion. Bismarck concluded at this time that France would never be an ally to the new German Empire.