Human Flourishing, The Good Life, Technology, and Information Society
Human Flourishing as Reflected in Progress and Development
This chapter aims to explore human flourishing in the context of scientific and technological advancements, examining the concept of 'de-development' as proposed by Jason Hickel, and contrasting it with conventional notions of growth and consumption.
Learning Outcomes:
Critique human flourishing in relation to scientific and technological progress.
Explain Hickel's paradigm of 'de-development'.
Differentiate 'de-development' from traditional growth and consumption models.
Indicators of Development:
Traditionally, development is often linked to economic growth and increased consumption. A population's wealth is measured by its consumption capacity, and individual success is often gauged by their purchasing power. However, the Earth is currently strained by human activities, necessitating a re-evaluation of our development standards to achieve a truly good life.
Jason Hickel and 'De-Development':
Jason Hickel, an anthropologist at the London School of Economics, challenges the conventional development model, advocating for a 'de-development' paradigm, particularly for wealthy nations.
Hickel argues that despite significant global economic growth (380% since 1980), poverty rates have not decreased, with over 1.1 billion people living on less than 6,000 and consumption of 1.9 hectares. Similarly, Costa Rica maintains high happiness indicators and life expectancies with a per capita income one-fourth that of the US.
Hickel acknowledges the difficulties in promoting 'de-developing' in Western countries but cites research suggesting that 70% of people in middle- and high-income countries feel overconsumption endangers the planet and society. These individuals believe that buying and owning less wouldn't necessarily reduce their happiness.
He suggests reframing the narrative away from negative terms like 'de-growth' or 'zero growth,' which conflict with ingrained ideas of progress. Instead, he proposes a focus on 'steady-state' economics and a shift towards quality over quantity, emphasizing that GDP is not an adequate measure of progress.
Drawing inspiration from the Latin American concept of 'buen vivir' (good living), Hickel advocates for interventions like banning advertising, shortening the working week, and implementing basic income, aiming to improve lives while reducing consumption.
He warns that either we slow down voluntarily or climate change will force us to. Rethinking progress is both an ecological and developmental imperative, essential to prevent the reversal of anti-poverty gains due to collapsing food systems and famine.
Ultimately, Hickel's concept isn't about deprivation but about achieving a higher level of understanding and consciousness regarding our actions and their impact.
The Good Life
This chapter explores the concept of the good life as defined by Aristotle and seeks to provide a contemporary understanding that integrates ethical standards and innovative solutions to current issues.
Learning Outcomes:
Explain Aristotle's concept of the good life.
Define the good life in personal terms.
Examine universal concerns related to the good life to address modern problems ethically.
Pursuit of the Good Life:
Everyone seeks a good life, striving for happiness and contentment for themselves, their families, and humanity. Definitions of the good life can vary, but certain universal truths remain constant.
Aristotle and Nicomachean Ethics:
Aristotle posited that all human activities aim at some good. He argued that every art, inquiry, action, and pursuit is directed towards a specific good. Consequently, the good is universally recognized as the objective of all endeavors (Nicomachean Ethics 2:2).
The good is expressed differently depending on individual circumstances. The good life transcends these expressions, characterized by happiness derived from virtuous living and doing.
Both the common person and the educated identify happiness as the ultimate goal, viewing living well and doing well as synonymous with being happy (Nicomachean Ethics 1:4).
The ancient Greeks referred to this state of 'living well and doing well' as eudaimonia, derived from eu ('good') and daimon ('spirit'). It represents a life of flourishing, filled with meaningful activities that enable individuals to become their best selves. For example, a student excels by fulfilling academic requirements, and an athlete excels through rigorous training and competitive success.
According to Aristotle, happiness is the final objective of human actions, pursued for its intrinsic value. Financial stability, political power, and environmental stewardship are all sought as means to achieve happiness.
Happiness is chosen for its own sake, never as a means to something else. While honor, pleasure, reason, and virtue are valued both for themselves and as paths to happiness, happiness is uniquely pursued for itself (Nicomachean Ethics 2:7).
True happiness isn't derived from fleeting pleasures but from a virtuous life lived with excellence, impacting both personal and global dimensions. Happiness is controlled by activities that express virtue and diminished by those that don't (Nicomachean Ethics 1:10).
Sustaining health through avoiding unhealthy foods is a virtuous activity that enhances well-being and happiness. Similarly, environmental care through proper waste management fosters a clean environment, contributing to overall happiness.
These virtuous actions require discipline and consistent practice. Activities contrary to virtue, driven by convenience or immediate gratification, undermine happiness. Disregarding virtuous actions leads to negative consequences, such as illness from poor diet or environmental degradation from neglect.
The good life is characterized by happiness stemming from virtuous actions and decisions that positively influence both the individual and the broader community, fostering flourishing for oneself and others. The good life is not solitary but interconnected.
Virtue is essential to living and achieving the good life, requiring consistent ethical practice regardless of circumstances. Virtue, an excellence of character, empowers individuals to act and be good, cultivated through habit and discipline rather than isolated deeds.
Everyone has the potential for goodness but must cultivate the discipline to make exercising virtue a habit. Intellectual virtue arises from teaching and experience, while moral virtue results from habitual practice (Nicomachean Ethics 2:1).
The advancement of science and technology also contributes to the good life. These fields represent the highest expressions of human capabilities, enabling us to thrive and flourish. While science and technology can be misused, grounding oneself in virtue helps to avoid potential dangers.
When Technology and Humanity Cross
The ethical considerations surrounding human rights and the impact of technology on society are explored. The integration of technology into human life raises questions about autonomy, dignity, and well-being within a just and progressive society.
Learning Outcomes:
Evaluate contemporary human experience to reinforce the function of the human person in society.
Discuss the importance of human rights amid changing social conditions and technological development.
Identify national laws and policies that protect individual well-being in the face of technological advancements and ethical dilemmas.
The Good Life in a Progressive Society:
The good life is intertwined with a society that is just and progressive, where individuals have the autonomy to pursue their flourishing. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, provides a global standard for fundamental human rights, universally recognized and protected.
The UDHR asserts that recognizing the inherent dignity and equal rights of all individuals is fundamental to freedom, justice, and peace (UDHR Preamble). Human dignity is central to our existence and should be appreciated in every person, fostering a just and progressive society that allows individuals to become more free, rational, and loving.
Freedom is enhanced when individuals are empowered to make choices that facilitate their flourishing. Rationality grows when logic and science are valued and applied, and love is fostered by ensuring human dignity is at the core of all endeavors, whether scientific or otherwise. Understanding and protecting one's fundamental human rights is essential given changing social conditions.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR):
The UDHR outlines fundamental human rights in 30 articles, crucial for the pursuit of the good life. These inalienable rights are freedoms guaranteed to everyone by virtue of their humanity. Article 1 establishes the principle of equality in dignity and rights, although this is not always reflected in practice.
The good life, defined by justice, requires both equal treatment and preferential treatment for those who are disadvantaged. The first seven articles of the UDHR capture the essence of this milestone document:
Article 1: All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights, endowed with reason and conscience, and should act in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms in the Declaration, without distinction based on race, color, sex, language, religion, political opinion, national origin, property, birth, or status. No discrimination should be based on the political or international status of the country to which a person belongs.
Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and personal security.
Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; all forms of slavery and the slave trade are prohibited.
Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6: Everyone has the right to be recognized as a person before the law.
Article 7: All are equal before the law and entitled to equal protection without discrimination. All are entitled to protection against any violation of the Declaration and any incitement to discrimination.
Crafted in 1948, after World War II, the UDHR provides a common understanding of fundamental human rights applicable to everyone. Knowledge and adherence to these rights are essential to prevent injustice and oppression.
Humans vs. Robots:
The advancement of machinery and artificial intelligence (AI) may render humans obsolete, challenging ethical norms. As manual labor is replaced by machines and computers become more advanced, robots are designed to perform complex and dangerous tasks. With AI development, robots may eventually act and decide like humans, raising ethical concerns.
While the Philippines has not yet commercially produced household robots, the ethical implications of replacing humans with machines must be considered. Experts in South Korea are developing ethical guidelines to prevent the exploitation of robots and vice versa (Evans, 2007), and European roboticists are lobbying for government legislation.
Despite the perceived science fiction nature of AI in the Philippines, its use is growing, especially in the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry. While technology enables the growth of the BPO sector, it could also cause its decline. Investors use business analytics provided by AI, leading to decision-making based on sophisticated statistical analyses of massive data. By August 2017, it was estimated that one million Filipino BPO workers could lose their jobs due to AI adoption (Santos, 2017).
Unemployment is a significant ethical consideration in the widespread use of AI. What does the replacement of human beings with machines mean for the value and dignity of individuals? How do we guard against errors made by machines? These are crucial questions that must be addressed when technology threatens human dignity and security. As machines and robots become more human-like, ethical treatment of AI may also need consideration.
As machines become more human-like, humans may also display machine-like behaviors. With instant access to information and conveniences, people may function more like automatons. The internet, an instant source of answers, may hinder critical thinking and contextual understanding. Nicolas Carr (2008) argues in 'Is Google making us stupid?' that reliance on computers flattens our intelligence into artificial intelligence.
The development of society, coupled with advances in science and technology, raises complex issues. Protecting and exercising human rights is essential for the pursuit of the good life. Amid these developments, human beings must become more free, rational, and loving in their application of science and technology.
Examining contemporary issues in science and technology—such as information, genetically modified organisms, nanotechnology, and climate change—requires a constant commitment to the good, manifested through scientific methodologies, personal virtue, social responsibility, and global concern.
Why the Future Does Not Need Us:
Bill Joy, former chief scientist at Sun Microsystems, argued in his 2000 essay, 'Why the future does not need us,' that genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics (GNR) could threaten human existence. This threat arises from the uncritical adoption of new technologies.
Joy highlighted that GNR technologies have a unique amplifying factor: self-replication. Unlike a bomb that detonates once, self-replicating technologies can quickly escalate out of control. These technologies could also significantly extend life spans and improve quality of life.
Humans must learn from past events, such as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which demonstrated the destructive potential of science and technology. Today, GNR technologies are more accessible, requiring fewer resources than nuclear weapons, making them more prone to accidents and misuse, especially in the hands of extremist groups.
Science and technology, expressions of human rationality, can shape or destroy the world. Freeman Dyson, a physicist involved in nuclear power development, noted in the documentary 'The Day After Trinity' (1981) the allure of technical power and the risk of technical arrogance which can corrupt human nature.
Without restraint, the vanity and arrogance unleashed by such power can lead to self-destruction. As Friedrich Nietzsche stated, 'The wasteland grows; woe unto him who harbors the wasteland within.'
Information Society
This chapter examines the human and social impact of developments in the information age, tracing the evolution of technology from ancient times to the present, and exploring how social media has affected our lives.
Learning Outcomes:
Determine the human and social impacts of developments in the information age.
Discuss the evolution of technology from ancient times to the present.
Illustrate how social media has affected their lives.
Information vs. Noise:
In today's world, we are inundated with technology that claims to provide information. Distinguishing between genuine information and mere noise is a critical challenge. Understanding the historical context of information transmission can be helpful.
Information:
A word is a combination of sounds representing something, distinguishing it from mere vocal utterances. Words carry meaning, informed by the speaker and intended for the listener (Chaisson, 2006; Ben-Naim, 2015). They communicate a message.
The Role of Language:
Naming and classifying objects in nature was an early step in understanding the natural world. The scientific pursuit of truth recognized the usefulness of language. The ancient Greeks admired the power of words, recognizing that words have power.
The ability for an idea to exist simultaneously in one's mind and another's, and the capacity to form communities through communicated words, fascinated the Greeks. Determining whether the power of the word originates from the speaker or the listener is key, but both generating and receiving share a system useful in pursuing knowledge. Science, from the Latin word scire (to know), is a form of knowledge the Greeks sought to understand.
Comprehending words as more than sounds led the Greeks to explore the principles of everyday language. Meaningful messages are created using ordinary sounds, and this meaning is not diminished when communicated to multiple people across space and time.
The earliest philosophers sought a unifying principle in nature, believing that all seemingly different things must have a common factor. They sought what was literally 'after nature' (meta phusis) (De Chardin, 1965).
Plato's principle of 'One and the Many' refers to the underlying unity among diverse beings in nature. He believed objects share a common intrinsic nature that determines their real sense. Biologists illustrate this using a system of genus and species. In the 21st century, technology has allowed us to discover the diversity in nature (BANWA Natural Science, 2008).
Mathematics as the Language of Nature:
Modern technology is a fruit of science. The scientific method has helped people discover how nature behaves, enabling them to control nature with technology. By understanding the laws and language of nature, people can develop technology for their benefit. This language is mathematics, Isaac Newton's great contribution. Nature can be understood because it communicates in mathematics, which the human brain can comprehend (Wigner, 1960).
Technological World:
The ability to think and comprehend nature conceptually leads to science. Ancient thinkers harnessed natural forces after understanding them. The first sailing vessel using wind power and the early understanding of fire are examples. Hero of Alexandria invented a primitive steam engine in the 1st century (Paul Davies, 1990).
The Printing Press and Beyond:
The power of the eidos, or idea, was evident in Western development. The ancient fascination with language led to preserving words of earlier people. The importance of the word led to hand-copying texts. The printing press, developed in the 15th century, transformed cultures. It facilitated the sharing of knowledge, allowing thinkers from different places and times to form communities (Connell, 1958).
This invention enabled words and scientific ideas to establish a view of nature anchored in scholarly works. New discoveries about electricity were absorbed by scientists to create technologies like radio and television.
In the information age, idea transmission has changed, with digital signals replacing rhetoric. This digital world is a direct result of technological progress based on scientific advances (Toffler, 1984).
The World Wide Web:
The World Wide Web, invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN for addressing data processing and information sharing needs among scientists, exemplifies technology feeding itself. CERN's atom smasher created vast amounts of scientific data, necessitating a new medium for analysis.
While the telegraph and telephone allowed for transcending physical boundaries, the internet was needed to process the ocean of scientific data. The sailor rigging a sail to catch the wind shares the same impulse as the creation of modern machines, all driven by human beings to address needs and explore new frontiers with scientific thinking.
Given the many benefits gained from these technologies, responsibility is crucial to avoid harming others and ourselves.
With the ease of sharing information at present, its reliability becomes compromised. Anyone with a connection can produce content that is showing half-truths or even lies, giving rise to disinformation. Social media also encourages building a community of like-minded people.
Biodiversity
From early times, when ancient philosophers tried to explain all things as coming from the elements of water, fire, air, or earth, science sought for the common characteristic, a unifying element, in all of nature's many phenomena. There was a growing awareness of how all living things are related to each other, an idea called biodiversity.
This recognition started when naturalists began to classify organisms in the natural world using taxonomy, a system devised by Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. Still used in the biological sciences today, taxonomy is the hierarchical system of classifying and naming organisms. It builds on the ability of the mind to find the common in the diverse. It is a system commonly used today and shows that though the living organisms in the world are so diverse, they still share many traits.
Where several different species and genera cohabitate, there is rich biodiversity. One of the basic laws of the living is that of self-preservation. An organism will sacrifice all it has to ensure its survival. However, with a limited amount of resources, how do the many living organisms of a diverse region survive?
The answer lies in the way the available energy supply in the world is shared among the different species through the various ecological relationships. The energy needed to live is shared among the elements of the living world, or passed on from one to another.
The 2010 International Year of Biodiversity
The United Nations (UN) declared 2010 to be the International Year of Biodiversity, the International Year for the Rapprochement of Cultures, and the International Year of Youth.
Biological diversity, also known as biodiversity, is the term given to the variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms. This diversity is often understood in terms of the variety of plants, animals, and microorganisms. About 1.75 million species are identified, mostly small creatures such as insects. Some scientists believe that there are actually about 13 million species, though estimates range from three to 100 million.
The loss of biodiversity threatens food supplies, opportunities for recreation and tourism, and sources of wood, medicines, and energy. It also interferes with essential ecological functions. On December 20, 2006, the UN General Assembly declared 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. It designated the secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity as the event's focal point.
The assembly also invited the secretariat to work with other UN bodies, environmental agreements, and organizations to bring greater international attention to the continued loss of biodiversity. The International Year of Biodiversity focuses on boosting awareness of biodiversity's importance by promoting actions to foster biodiversity worldwide.
Biotechnology
Biodiversity International has released a module titled "Law and policy of relevance to the management of plant genetic resources (Bragdon et al., 2005)," which aims to help professionals in managing, conserving, and using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
The module provides the following definitions:
Biotechnology uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof to make or modify products or processes for a specific use.
Genetic engineering is a technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one source to another. It leads to the production of living modified organisms (LMOs) or genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Modern biotechnology gives scientists molecular tools for obtaining a better understanding of the structure and function of genes in living organisms.
Modern biotechnology paves the way for new developments in food and agriculture. Particularly, it aims to develop new precision tools and diagnostics; speed up breeding gains and efficiency; develop pest- and disease-resistant crops; combat salinity, drought, and problems of agriculture; enhance the nutritional quality of food; increase crop varieties and choice; reduce inputs and production costs; and increase profits (Bragdon et al., 2005).
Genetically Modified Organisms
Based on evolutionary theory, the concept of survival of the fittest implies that living organisms have a natural spectrum of characteristics such as size, mass, or length. The characteristics of an organism and its successors can be modified today by modern technology, giving rise to what are called genetically modified organisms or GMOs (Mayr, 2001).
A GMO is a plant, animal, microorganism, or other organism whose genetic makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA methods (also called gene splicing), gene modification, or transgenic technology. It is the result of a laboratory process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and artificially inserted into the genes of an unrelated plant or animal, also called genetic engineering (GE) or genetic modification (GM). Because this process involves the transfer of genes, GMOs are also known as transgenic organisms.
Genetic modification aims to address issues with regard to food security, agriculture, drug production, and nutrition.
Genetic Modification
To better understand the controversy over GMO, the actual process to achieve such an organism will be discussed. The information about the microbe and its reproduction mechanism are contained in its gene structure. The first step in the process is the identification of the desired trait from another organism. A gene containing this trait is first isolated and replicated. Next, the insertion of the trait happens. What is being transferred from one organism to another is not the whole gene but only sections of the gene that carry the particular characteristic that will be integrated into the adult organism. After the successful insertion, the modified organism should be able to grow and replicate.
In the process of recombinant DNA technology, the needed information for an organism can be borrowed from another. Such a process means that a farmer can design an organism to have the characteristics necessary to address particular issues. For example, a farmer may want the crops to have less chance of getting bruised due to rough handling. If an organism containing a gene that prevents bruising in the mature fruit (employing the science of genetics) could be found, then this characteristic could then be used to modify the crops through the process of recombinant gene technology.
However, because GMOs are novel life forms, biotechnology companies were also able to obtain patents which restrict their use. As a result, some companies that make GMOs could have the power to sue farmers whose fields are contaminated with these organisms, even when it is the result of inevitable drifting from neighboring fields (Nicholson, 2014). GMOs, therefore, may pose a serious threat to farmer sovereignty and the food security of a country.
The promise of better food that is more resistant to spoilage, pest invasiveness, and harsh weather conditions has made transgenic crops enticing to many people. It is a truly debatable topic for the people of the 21st century, given the promise of this technology and yet the fact that it is very new. Should it be embraced as a saving grace or is it to be feared as a possible threat to a sustainable food supply?
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
The case above contextualizes the country's signing of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. It takes a precautionary approach by making sure that countries are provided with the data necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory.
The Philippines recognizes the technologies that can be of particular help for its development. Since the Philippines is one of the biodiversity "hotspots" in the world, it is helpful to know how biotechnology will progress in the country.
Gene Therapy
The last technology that will be tackled in this book is gene technology. In the previous chapter, the nano world that contains atoms and molecules was introduced. This chapter will now focus on the developments in the nano world as applied to the animate or the living.
When identifying the contribution of technology to biology, the first place to look would be the field of human health. The whole vast concerns of human health including aging, disease treatment and prevention, and diet and general lifestyle have greatly benefited from technology. Medicine is one example of a scientific and technological innovation that made a breakthrough in the area of human health. Before aspirin was ever understood at the nano level, it had been known for its effects. Pain of various forms could be relieved and softened by this medicine. The aspirin was already an "old" technology at the beginning of the 21st century. The more recent findings in the areas of nano and gene science can be incorporated to medicine. If new discoveries on the areas of molecular and atomic physics are applied to the biological basic building blocks-the genes-even greater technologies for human health may be found.
Suppose scientists would like to fashion a gene to counter cancer cell growth. After several steps of developing the technology, its success would still depend on its science and implementation. To achieve the goal, the harmful gene has to be found among the 46 such structures in the ordinary cells of the person. The specific part of that gene doing the problem should be identified. Afterwards, that section of the gene must be removed and replaced with the "correct" or developed gene part to complete the therapy. This process would then correct the misinformation encoded in the whole gene.
The financial cost of this therapy is not trivial. Each of the steps mentioned requires expertise and technological skill. Therefore, gene therapy can be costly.
Chapter 12
All the discussions regarding the interaction among science, technology, and society will conclude with a current controversial topic-climate change. It is current in a sense that it has been put under the international spotlight since the start of the 21st century. Data that has been accumulated are used by scientists to determine if there really is a significant change in the earth's climate. But what does climate change mean?
Doesn't the climate always change?Climate is not similar to weather which is constantly changing. Climate refers to the long-term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of the planet. The term comes from a Greek word klinein meaning "to slope." It evolved into klima, connoting a zone or region of the Earth as characterized by its atmospheric conditions. In ancient Greece, the orb of the sun stood at a high angle in the sky at noontime as ships sailed toward the north, and the daytime temperature of the air would get colder. Hence the klima in the north was colder than in the south.
Another consideration in explaining climate change is the interaction between the sun and the Earth. The best way to visualize this relationship is to look at the orbit of the Earth around the sun. With the sun in the center, the Earth moves in an elliptical motion.
Earth's Movement Around the Sun
While the orbit remains an ellipse, its position or orientation in space changes over time. Due to the tilt of the Earth, the whole area does not receive an equal amount of sunlight. The Earth spins around its own axis, an imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole, which dips and wobbles gradually. The Earth could then be imagined like a spinning top or trumpo, turning and wobbling in its path about the sun.
The elements in this interaction between the sun and the Earth are defined as follows:
Aphelion refers to the point in the orbit of the Earth farthest from the sun.
Perihelion is the point in the orbit of the Earth closest to the sun.
Earth's axial tilt is the inclination angle of the Earth's rotational axis concerning a line perpendicular to its orbital plane.
Precession is the change of the orientation of the rotational axis of the Earth.
Equinox refers to the time the sun at noon is directly over the equator. It happens twice a year and causes an almost equal length of day and night.
Solstice happens when the sun at noon sits above the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn. The summer solstice has the longest period of daylight in the year, and the winter solstice has the shortest period.
Precession of the equinoxes refers to the motion of the equinoxes relative to the precession of the Earth's axis of rotation. It happens over thousands of years.
The center of the Earth's orbital motion is the sun but the angle or orientation of the planet around the sun makes all the difference. In discussing global warming or climate change, it makes sense to start considering the orbit of the Earth. Sunlight falling upon the Earth warms the planet. The amount of sunlight, however, is not constant since the orientation of the Earth to the sun changes.
There have been eras of climate change in the past. Is it possible that the 21st century may introduce yet another dramatic change in climate? Is there enough information to answer the age-old question of "what will the weather be tomorrow" (Ciliberto, 2015)? There is a growing body of data suggesting that the climate, not just the local day-to-day weather, is changing all over the world. In fact, since the end of the 20th century, many scientists have asked if the Earth is headed for another Ice Age (Sparks & Hawkesworth, 2004).
This concern raises the question as to what causes such dramatic changes in the day-to-day weather and climate. It was addressed as early as the 1930s by Slovak scientist and meteorologist Milutin Milankovitch. His interest in the daily weather patterns led him to investigate the deeper issues: Do weather and climate come ultimately from the sun so that it is the sun and its relation to the Earth that accounts for the change in the climate? Is it possible that as the distance of the sun to the Earth changes, the Earth is affected enough to cause climate to change? He knew that it has long been said by astronomers that the distance from the sun to the Earth is constant as shown by the orbital radius of the Earth. Likewise, the tilt of the North Pole of the Earth has always been relative to the plane of the solar system. Finally, the North Pole of the Earth is also relative to the stars as the Earth circles the sun over many years. But could all of these very small changes in the amount of radiation reaching the Earth from the sun bring about the huge change in the climate of the Earth?
His contemporary scientists critiqued his work, saying that the effects of the change in the radius of the Earth's orbit, the change in the tilt of the spin of the Earth, and the wobble in the spin axis (now called the Milankovitch parameters), while real, were each so small that they could not alter the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth enough to cause a phenomenon like the Ice Age. They felt he had a good idea but it was not enough to explain the event that was being addressed. Milankovitch believed he was on to something so much that he wanted to validate his theoretical calculations. The work was time-consuming and tedious. Since this was the early 20th century, no modern computing devices were available for him to use. Even the electronic adding machine was not invented yet. With the technology at hand, he could not prove that the mathematics was correct (Gleick, 1987).
Nevertheless, the mathematical expressions of the Laws of Nature as first enunciated by Isaac Newton in the 17th century have some subtle features that might help explain the role of the Milankovitch parameters in changing climate. The equations of the Laws of Nature allow for cumulative or summative effects. If the sun warms a small piece of land, it can warm a larger piece of land in the same way. If a cup of water can be heated by one degree, two cups can be heated in the same way, one cup after another. But what if the two cups are added together? Can the sum be heated with the same amount of energy? No, twice as much heat would then be needed. The laws of science seem quite consistent and reasonable.
Using the computer, scientists went back to the mathematical equations that described how the sun-Earth relationship causes the climate to change over thousands and even millions of years. They have come to realize that changing the Milankovitch parameters over long periods of time can indeed have a cumulative effect far greater than it appears at first glance. This discovery is part of what has been called a "new" science called Chaos theory (Gleick, 1987).
In summary, it can thus be seen that science has been reviewing for decades the issue of how and why the climate changes, especially with regard to explaining the Ice Age. Milankovitch studied whether or not the direct amount of sunlight falling on Earth was the cause of the Ice Age. He reasoned that over thousands of years, the relative position of the Earth and sun changes, causing variations in the solar radiation reaching the Earth over thousands of years.
14.514.314.1Temperature (°c)13.913.713.5°1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000YearFigure 3.16 Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (gray) and mean global temperature (black) during the past millennium. An oft-cited fact to better understand global warming is the temperature of the planet versus the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Today, as the world considers climate change and its implications on food security and national development, many nations are taking a deeper look at the science behind the issue.
Global Warming
The Milankovitch parameters seem to be part of the cause of climate change, though not the only cause. Some other factor seems to be needed. Most of the scientists who study climate change agree that the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere has been increasing by over 90% in the latter part of the 20th century. What are the causes of this phenomenon (Rees, 2001)?
There are two opposing arguments on the issue of whether or not this global warming is just "natural." One side states that nature, simply acting according to its laws with no reference to human beings and their actions, is the main reason. For the purveyors of this belief, global warming will happen as naturally as the suns rises and sets.
Term 1: Indicators of Development
Definition 1: Economic growth and increased consumption
Term 2: Jason Hickel and 'De-Development'
Definition 2: Challenges the conventional development model, advocating for a 'de-development' paradigm, particularly for wealthy nations.
Term 3: Eudaimonia
Definition 3: A life of flourishing, filled with meaningful activities that enable individuals to become their best selves.
Term 4: The Good Life in a Progressive Society
Definition 4: A society that is just and progressive, where individuals have the autonomy to pursue their flourishing
Term 5: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
Definition 5: A global standard for fundamental human rights, universally recognized and protected.
Term 6: Why the Future Does Not Need Us
Definition 6: Could threaten human existence due to the uncritical adoption of new technologies.
Term 7: Information
Definition 7: Genuine, carries meaning, informed by the speaker and intended for the listener, communicate a message.
Term 8: Taxonomy
Definition 8: The hierarchical system of classifying and naming organisms.
Term 9: Biodiversity
Definition 9: The variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms.
Term 10: Biotechnology
Definition 10: Uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof to make or modify products or processes for a specific use.
Term 11: Genetic engineering
Definition 11: A technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one source to another, leading to the production of living modified organisms (LMOs) or genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Term 12: Genetically Modified Organisms
Definition 12: A plant, animal, microorganism, or other organism whose genetic makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA methods.
Term 13: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
Definition 13: An international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs).
Term 14: Climate
Definition 14: Climate refers to the long-term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of the planet.
Term 15: Aphelion
Definition 15: Refers to the point in the orbit of the Earth farthest from the sun.
Term 16: Perihelion
Definition 16: Is the point in the orbit of the Earth closest to the sun.
Term 17: Earth's axial tilt
Definition 17: Is the inclination angle of the Earth's rotational axis concerning a line perpendicular to its orbital plane.
Term 18: Precession
Definition 18: Is the change of the orientation of the rotational axis of the Earth.
Term 19: Equinox
Definition 19: Refers to the time the sun at noon is directly over the equator. It happens twice a year and causes an almost equal length of day and night.