7. Syntax

Syntax describes rules that langauge uses to combine word forms into phrases, clauses and sentences and to express logical relations between constituents of construction

Three syntactic relations:

1.Constituency

→ Structure y is contained in structure x.

Example:

→ Elements of B and C are constituents of the sentence A, but only B are immediate constituents of A

Recognising immediate constituents:

  • largest unit that can be substituted by single form like pronoun

  • can only be moved as whole

  • if optional, can be omitted as whole

2.Complementation

→ Structure x and structure y require each other to form structure z of higher level

Example: this + week → this week

→ fulfills function which neither this nor week alone could

3.Modification

→ Structure x is accompanied by optional structure y that provides additional information but does not change syntactic behaviour

Example: cold → very cold

Syntax also recursive

→ Number of forms and levels in syntactic construction theoretically unlimited

Most important:

Syntactic structure is defined by functional slots which can be filled by formal realisations. In syntactic analysis vital always to keep apart what constituent is in itself (its form) and what it does (its function within larger unit).

Form vs. function → no 1-1 relation

  • Same syntactic function can be realised by different forms: it/the answer/… is evident

  • same form can fulfil different syntactic functions: Brutus I loved I Ceasar

Forms of English syntax: words

  • have traditionally been divided in types according to meaning → notional word classes (not satisfactory)

  • Structuralist approach: defined by distribution of forms over paradigmatic slots in constructions judged to be grammatical

→ can still use traditional labels for word classes (parts of speeches)

Forms of English syntax: Phrases

  • individual words not normally immediate constituents of clauses

  • at least one (often more) intermediate level at which words appear surrounded by complements and modifiers → forming phrases

  • typically phrase together, sometimes discontinous e.g. the idea came up that it might be advisable to consult a lawyer

Forms of English syntax: clauses

  • Difference clause and sentence:

    • clause:

      • any structure that consists of verb phrase plus complement and modifiers

      • form of verb phrase makes claus finite/non-finite

      • verbless clause: verb itself may be missing with functional structure still intact

    • sentence:

      • highest ranking structure in syntax

      • syntactically independent consisting of at least one finite clause

      • theoretically unlimited number of constituents of sentence can be clauses

Forms of English syntax:

Highest level: the sentence

intermediate levels: clauses (of different types) / phrases of different types

lowest lewel: words (of different classes and subclasses)

Verb Phrase

Functions in verb phrase

  • first element decides wether finite or non-finite

  • only other elements considered part od verb phrase are to (of infinitive) and particle “not”

  • Forms/sub-classes in verb phrase:

    • Lexical verb e.g. add, edit, .. → open class

    • primary verb e.g. be, have, do → closed class

    • modal verb e.g. can, may, must, shall, will → closed class

    → justified on distributional grounds

    • function: auxiliary → primary verb/modal verb

    • function: head → lexical verb/primary verb

      → Primary verbs both auxiliaries and heads

Noun Phrase

Functions in noun phrase

Forms/sub-classes in noun phrases

  • proper noun: Alice, God, April

  • count noun: house, idea, …

  • non-count noun: applause, butter, information, …

    → different types behave differently in noun phrase

  • determiner: the, a, an, that, my, …

  • pronoun: I, him, … → functionally equivalent to complete noun phrase

Proper nouns / non-count nouns can be converted into count nouns with a different meaning

Adjective Phrase

Functions in adjective phrase

Forms:

  • adjective

→ even one-word phrases are phrases when occuring as immediate constituents

Adverb Phrase

Functions

Forms:

  • adverb

Prepositional Phrase

Functions

Forms:

  • preposition

Functions at clause level: VERB

Forms that can fulfil function verb:

  • verb phrase

  • Problem: same label for word class verb (forms) and clause function verb (what form does in clause)

  • But cluase function verb always realised by verb phrase → wherever verb (word class), also a verb phrase, verb (clause function) and a clause

Functions at clause level: SUBJECT

Forms that can fulfil function subject

  • noun phrase (including pronouns)

  • clause

Criteria for identification Subject

  • position (constituent order SV)

  • case

  • concord

  • behaviour under passivisation

  • question tag

English: finite clause usually needs overt subject, even if no semantic equivalent, empty subject required (It’s raining)

Functions at clause level: Direct Object

Forms that can fulfil function Direct Object

  • noun phrase (including pronouns)

  • clause

Criteria for identification:

  • position (constituent order SVO)

  • case

  • behaviour under passivisation

Functions at clause level: Indirect Object

Forms that can fulfil function:

  • noun phrase (including pronouns)

  • clause

Criteria:

  • position (constituent order SVOiOd

  • transformation into prepositional phrase

English allows passivisation for both indirect and direct objects

Functions at clause level: Subject Complement

Forms that can fulfil function:

  • noun phrase

  • adjective phrase

  • clause

Criteria:

  • reference to subject expressed by copula (linking verb) like, be, become, seem

  • no passivisation

Functions at clause level: Object Complement

Forms that can fulfil function

  • nonún phrase

  • adjective phrase

Criteria:

  • position (constituent order: SVOCo)

  • semantic reference to object

  • behaviour under passivisation

Functions at clause level: Adverbial

Forms that can fulfil function:

  • adverb phrase

  • prepositional phrase

  • noun phrase

  • clause

Criteria:

  • optionality

  • mobility

Semantically, adverbials are modifiers of:

  • verb phrase

  • entire clause

  • implied speech act

Functions at clause level: Obligatory Adverbial

→ Criteria of optionality/mobility doesn’t apply to certain constructions that are formally/Semantically similar to adverbials

→ with some verbs specific Adverbials act like complements

Verb complementation patterns

If stripped of all optional adverbials, clause will correspond to one of basic construction types

  • list is complete, other combinations impossible

  • optional adverbials can be added freely

  • SVO reflects most common positions but not meant to rule out other constituent order patterns

Variation:

  • ellipsis of subject in informal speech (“Don’t think so”)

  • COnstituent order SVCoO due to principle of weight

  • Eytraposition of long object and insertion of dummy “it”

Recipe for syntactic analysis

1. Spot highest ranking verb phrase, the verb of main clause

  • Criteria:

    • main clause is finite

    • not introduced by subordinating conjunction

    • not dependent on another constituent

→ now you have one immediate constituent of main clause

2. based on verb, determine other immediate constituents of sentence

  • Criteria:

    • each one can be substitued by single pro-form

    • if shiftable, shifted as whole

    • if omittable, omitted as wholr

→ must either be a clause or correspond to one of the five phrase types

3. Determine forms of immediate constituents

4. Assign syntactic functions to immediate constituents

5. Determine complementation pattern of highest ranking verb

2 more syntactic relations

(1. constituency, 2. complementation, 3. modification)

4.Coordination

→ Structure x and y are parallel constituents at same syntactic level but different in reference), often linked by coordinator like and, or, but (cold and cloudy)

5.Apposition

→Structures x and y are parallel constituents identical in syntactic function and reference, one of them explaind the other and either of them could be omitted (not both)

e.g. his birthday present, a book on volcanoes

Coordination and subordination

  • Simple sentence: one main clause

  • Compound sentence: two or more coordinated main clauses

  • Complex sentences: ine or more immediate constituents are subordinate clauses

Marking constituency: Subordination

Structural ambiguity

Syntactic structures often compatible withdifferent analyses involving only subtle differences in meaning or palpable ones

Multiple analysis

Certain sructures pose systematic problems to dscrete analysis

Gradience:

Realistic: syntactic categories not discrete after all

Adjectives vs adverbs