Warfare, Military Strategies, and Conflict

Warfare

  • War is characterized by widespread conflict between states, organizations, or large groups, involving lethal violence.
  • It contrasts with peace, defined as the absence of war.
  • Commonly seen as military campaigns between opposing sides over issues like sovereignty, territory, resources, or religion.

Military Strategies

  1. Containment
  2. Deterrence
  3. Overwhelming Force (Powell’s Doctrine)
  4. Brinkmanship
  5. Mutually Assured Destruction
  6. Limited War
  7. Guerrilla Warfare
  8. Massive Retaliation
  9. Preemptive Strike
  10. Disarmament and Arms Control

3.1 Containment

  • US foreign policy strategy during the Cold War to prevent the spread of communism.
  • Aimed to stop the 'domino effect' of states moving towards Soviet-based communism.
  • Originated from the idea that isolation leads to stagnation.
  • First outlined in George Kennan’s 'Long Telegram' and the 'X Article' (1947).
  • Kennan argued the US should prevent communism's spread to non-Communist nations.
  • The Truman Doctrine embraced containment as a key principle, supporting regimes to block communism.
  • Motivated by the domino theory.
  • Became the overriding objective of US National Security Policy with NSC approval in November 1948.
  • NSC document stated the Soviet Union aimed to expand its influence due to its ideology, which threatened American security interests.
  • All subsequent US presidents adhered to containment as the focal point of American Cold War strategy.

3.2 Deterrence

  • Development of weapons of mass destruction and delivery systems altered war objectives.
  • War prevention superseded victory as the main goal for major powers.
  • Deterrence is a relationship where one party influences another's behavior through threats.
  • Involves threats of sanctions or deprivations to prevent undesirable actions.
  • State A attempts to stop State B from an undesirable action by threatening unacceptable costs.
  • Objective is to influence intentions, leading to inaction.
  • Two forms of deterrence:
    • Deterrence by punishment: threatening immense retaliation if attacked.
    • Deterrence by denial: building up defense and intelligence systems to neutralize or mitigate attacks.
  • Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) is a form of deterrence by punishment.

3.3 Overwhelming Force (Powell’s Doctrine)

  • Advocates using every resource and tool to achieve overwhelming force in war.
  • May oppose the principle of proportionality.
  • Colin Powell popularized the doctrine during the Gulf War.
  • According to Powell, responding proportionately allows the opponent to control the limits and level of fighting.
  • Military action should be a last resort when national security is at clear risk.
  • Force used should be overwhelming and disproportionate.
  • Requires strong public support and a clear exit strategy.
  • Principles for consideration before using overwhelming force:
    • Is a vital national security threatened?
    • Is there a clear attainable objective?
    • Have the risks and costs been fully analyzed?
    • Have all other non-violent policy means been exhausted?
    • Is there a plausible exit strategy?
    • Is there reasonable public and Congressional support?
    • Is there genuine broad international support?

3.4 Brinkmanship

  • Developed during Cold War confrontations between the US and Soviet Union.
  • Involves pushing a dangerous situation to the brink of disaster for an advantageous outcome.
  • Occurs in international politics, foreign policy, and military strategy, threatening the use of nuclear weapons.
  • Aims to force the opponent to back down and make concessions.
  • Observed during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.
  • Threats may escalate to unmanageable levels, prompting both sides to back down.
  • Dangers include a 'slippery slope' towards total disaster.
  • Effectiveness relies on credible, continuously escalated threats.
  • Risk of the situation sliding out of control if the opponent refuses to concede.

3.5 Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

  • Military strategy where a full-scale nuclear attack results in the destruction of both attacker and defender.
  • Based on deterrence theory.
  • Assumes each side can destroy the other and retaliate with equal or greater force.
  • Leads to immediate escalation and total destruction.
  • Nuclear fallout would cause worldwide devastation.
  • Applied during the Cold War to prevent direct full-scale conflicts.
  • Led to the arms race, as both nations sought nuclear parity.
  • Advocates believed it prevented nuclear war if neither side could survive a full-scale exchange.
  • Credibility required substantial investment in nuclear arsenals.
  • Provoked arms race with hardened and diversified nuclear delivery systems.

3.6 Limited War

  • War with objectives smaller than total defeat of the enemy.
  • Means for propagating war are also limited.
  • Reflects the idea that former enemies can make peace and trade.
  • Unlimited war creates massive civilian casualties and destroys infrastructure.
  • Engaging the enemy only within a defined territory.
  • Avoiding persuading other states to take part in the conflict as an ally.
  • Avoiding the use of certain weapons.
  • Avoiding the destruction of a certain type of military infrastructure.
  • Strategies developed due to:
    • The need for alternatives to total annihilation if deterrence failed.
    • The belief that the ability to wage limited war enhanced deterrence.
  • Criticisms include:
    • Undermining deterrence strategies, which prevented full-blown war during the Cold War.
    • Bringing war back into political practicability.
    • Assumed a level of rationality among policymakers, which may be impossible.

3.7 Guerrilla Warfare

  • Combat method using small groups and mobile, surprise tactics.
  • Tactics include ambushes, raids, and surprise attacks.
  • Guerrilla army draws opponents into favorable terrain or exploits mobility for surprise attacks.
  • Based on intelligence, ambush, deception, sabotage, and espionage.
  • Aims to undermine authority through long, low-intensity confrontation.
  • Successful against unpopular regimes, as seen in Vietnam.
  • Increases the cost of occupation or colonial presence.
  • May make governance impossible through terror strikes and sabotage.
  • Demoralizes the enemy and boosts guerrilla morale.
  • Allows small forces to hold off larger, better-equipped enemies for long periods.

3.8 Massive Retaliation

  • Military doctrine and nuclear strategy involving a state committing to retaliate with greater force upon attack.
  • Aims to deter initial attacks.
  • Requires public knowledge among possible aggressors.
  • Adversary must believe in the state’s second-strike capability and willingness to use it.
  • Functions similarly to MAD, but even a minor conventional attack could trigger nuclear retaliation.

3.9 Preemptive Strike

  • Military strategy to prevent or reduce the impact of an anticipated enemy attack.
  • Offensive action to prevent another party's offensive action.
  • Opposition from pacifists and countries previously invaded or caught in Cold War crossfire.
  • Seen as an offensive rather than defensive measure.
  • Verifiable intelligence is crucial.
  • Risk of bogus intelligence being introduced.
  • Rush to war can be followed by disclosure that pretexts were false.

3.10 Disarmament and Arms Control

  • Disarmament: reduction or abolition of armaments; can be unilateral or multilateral.
  • Arms control: restraint on armaments policy; regarding level, character, deployment, or use.
  • Often used synonymously, but distinct: disarmament is reduction, arms control is restraint.
  • Arms control: restrictions on development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, and usage of weapons.
  • Typically exercised through diplomacy, using international treaties and agreements.
  • SALT between the US and Soviet Union led to weapons control agreements.
  • SALT 1 led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and Interim Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement (1972).
  • SALT 2 (1972) led to agreement in 1979.
  • Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987) led to the destruction of missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 kilometers.
  • Chemical Weapons Convention (1993) banned chemical weapons.
  • Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (1966) banned nuclear explosions.
  • Enforcement of arms control agreements has proven difficult.
  • Effectiveness relies on participants' continued desire to abide by terms.
  • Nations may covertly circumvent or end participation in treaties.

Conflict

  • Disagreement or struggle between individuals or groups.
  • Arises from differences in opinions, values, or goals.
  • Source of tension, but can lead to growth.

Types of Conflict

  1. Armed Conflicts: Use of armaments in war, such as guns and other weapons of destruction.
  2. Intrapersonal Conflict: Internal struggle within oneself.
  3. Interpersonal Conflict: Disagreement between individuals.
  4. Intergroup Conflict: Conflict between groups or organizations.
  5. Conflict of Interest: Personal interests clash with obligations.