Definitions of Abnormality

1. What is Statistical Deviation/Statistical Infrequency?

• Statistical Deviation is any behaviour that is numerically or statistically rare. Only a small percentage of the population is exhibiting this behaviour.

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• Using a normal distribution such as the graph, we can identify people who are far from the mean. In the statistical definition, abnormality is anything that is far away from the mean or average. In the statistical definition, the ‘mean’ or ‘average’ is what is considered ‘normal’.

What are some strengths and weaknesses of Statistical Deviation?

1. A strength of the statistical definition of abnormality ’Statistical Deviation’ is that there is real world application of it in the diagnosis of intelletucal disability disorder. There is therefore a place for statistical deviation in thinking about what are normal and abnormal behaviours.

2. A disadvantage of Statistical Deviation is that unusual characteristics can be positive. For example, IQ scores that are over 130 are just as unusual as IQ scores that are below 70, but we would not think of high intelligence as an undesirable characteristic that needs treatment. Just because very few people display certain behaviours does not mean that the behaviour requires treatment to return it to normal. This is a limitation to the concept of statistical deviation.

3. Another disadvantage of statistical deviation is that not everyone will benefit from being labelled as abnormal. For example, if someone is living a decent life whilst have a behaviour that is statistically infrequent, then they do not benefit from being labelled as abnormal regardless of how abnormal they are. E.g. someone who has a very low IQ but who was not distressed, and is capable of working etc would not need a diagnosis of intellectual disability.

2. What is Deviation from Social Norms?

• Deviation from Social Norms defines abnormality as departing or deviating from what society considers as normal. For example, if you were to witness a man that was walking naked in the street, the man would be considered as abnormal as this breaks societ’s norms of what normal is.

What are the 5 criteria to examine before judging a behaviour as deviating from social norms?

1. The five criteria to examine before judging a behaviour as deviating from social norms are:

   1. Culture - what may be seen as normal in one culture may be seen as abnormal in another

   2. Situation and context - The situation and context that one is placed in can determine whether a behaviour is normal or deviating from what society views as normal. For example, going to the toilet is a normal human act, but going in the middle of a supermarket is considered as highly abnormal.

   3. Age - certain behaviours can be deemed normal or at least not abnormal for certain age groups, but then would be deemed highly abnormal for other age groups. For example, it would not be deemed abnormal if a baby were not to be toilet trained, however, if an adult aged 20 was not toilet trained, they would be deemed highly abnormal.

   4. Gender - certain behaviours are deemed more or less normal depending on the gender of individual carrying out the behaviour.

   5. Histrorical context - Standards of what behaviours are deemed as normal can change iver time in a society.

What is the difference between ‘Eccentric’ behaviour and deviating from social norms?

1. Eccentric behaviour may be defined as behaviour that is normal but taken to a higher extent, where as deviating from social norms is displaying behaviour that goes against what society deems as normal.

What are some advantages and disadvantages of explaining abnormality as ‘Deviating from Social Norms’?

1. One advantage of explaining abnormality as deviating from social norms is that it has real life application in the diagnosis of anti-social personality disorder. This therefore shows that there is a place for deviation from social norms in thinking about what is normal and what is abnormal.

2. A disadvantage of explaining abnormality through deviation from social norms is that social norms can vary from one generation to another and from one community to another. This would mean that a researcher from one social group may label someone from another social group as abnormal based on the standards of their own social group.

3. Another disadvantage of explaining abnormality through deviation of social norms is that it can lead to human rights abuses. Too much reliance on deviation from social norms to understand abnormality can also lead to systematic abuse of human rights. For example, things such as racism and the suffragettes show that these diagnosises were really there just to maintain control over minority ethnic groups and women.

3. What is Failure to Function Adequately?

1. Failure to function adequately was put forward by Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) in which there were seven criteria for failing to function adequately. The seven criteria for failure to function adequately are:

   1. Suffering - patient may be sufferung from their condition or may inflict suffering on others

   2. Maladaptiveness - The behaviour prevents the person from reaching their desired goals

   3. Irrational - The behaviour seems to defy logical sense

   4. Observer discomfort - behaviours makes those around them feel uncomfortable

   5. Vividness - others find the behaviour to be odd

   6. Violation of moral codes - The behaviour is not in accordance to societies norms

   7. Unpredictability - the behaviour is unexpected or predictable.

What are some strengths and weaknesses of Failure to Function adequately?

1. An advantage of failure to dunction adequately is that it attempts to include the subjective experience of the individual. Failure to function may not be a satisfactory approach because it can be difficult to assess vividness, but at least this definition acknowledges that the experience of the patient is important

2. A disadvantage of Failure to Function Adequately is that it may just be deviation from social norms. If behaviours such as people living alternate lifestyles are treated as failures of adequate functioning, thne there is a risk of limiting personal freedom and discriminating against certain groups. In practice, it can be hard to say when someone is failing to function adequately and when they are just deviating from social norms. For example, it may be thought that someone not having a job is a sign of failure to function. However, this person may choose not to work because they are able to. This is a disadvantage of failure to function adequately as there are blurred lines between what behaviours specifically show a failure of adequate functioning, and what behaviours are just deviating from social norms.

4. What is Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?

1. Jahoda (1958) proposed that there should be a list of behaviours that are considered normal, and so any deviations from what that list classes as normal, is therefore abnormal. The 8 criteria in deviation from ideal mental health are:

   1. We have no sysmptoms of any disorders

   2. We are rarional and can perceove ourselves accurately.

   3. We self actualise and reach our full potential.

   4. We can cope with stress

   5. We have a realistic view of the world

   6. We have good self esteem and lack guilt

   7. We are indenpendent of other people

   8. We can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure.
      

What are some strengths and weaknesses of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?

1. One advantage of Deviation from ideal mental health is that it is very comprehensive. It covers a broard range of criteria for mental health. The range of factors discussed in relation to Jahoda’s idea; mental health make it a good tool for thinking about mental health.

2. A disadvantage of Jahoda’s Deviation from Ideal Mental Health is that it sets an unrealistically high standard for mental health. Very few people can attain Jahoda’s criteria for mental health, and many people will never achieve all of them at the same time, therefore, by this criteria, a large number of people will be abnormal in this context.

Phobias

What is the definition of a phobia?

1. The definition of a phobia is: An irrational fear of an object or situation’

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

• Panic - a phobic person may panic in response to the presence of the phobic stimulus. Panic may be things such as crying or wheezing.

• Avoidance - The person will put in a lot of effort to avoid the stimulus. This makes it hard for their daily life having to go out of their way to avoid their phobic stimulus.

• Endurance - the person may stay in the presence of the phobic stimulus if there is no way out, but will be anxious.

What are the Emotional Characteristics of Phobias?

• Anxiety - Phobias are classed as anxiety disorders as phobia involves an emotional response of anxiety and fear. Anxiety is an unpleasant state of high arousal.

• The emotional responses are unreasonable - The emotional responses we experience in relation to a phobic stimuluys go beyond what is reasonable.

What are the Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias?

• Selective attentiion to phobic stimulus - if a sufferer can see the phobic stimulus then it will be hard for them to focus their attention onto something else. Keeping our attention on something dangerous is useful but not when the fear in irrational.

• Irrational beliefs - A phobic person may have beliefs of the phobic stimuli that are distorted and unrealistic.

• Cognitive distortion - a phobic person may have perceptions of the stimuli that are distorted.

What is the behavioural approach to explaining the causes of Phobias?

• The behavioural approach of how phobias are acquired is by Classical Condition which was put forward by Watson and Rayner (1920).

• Classical conditioning explains how phobias are acquired as in classical conditioning, the phobic stimulus initially begins as the the neutral stimulus and when presented to the individual, it will produce the neutral response (nothing). The unconditioned stimulus, such as a loud noise, would produce the unconditioned response (fear) when presented to individual. When the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented to the individua together, they will produce the unconditioned response which is fear. The neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are then paired together and presented to the individual on mutliple occasions. So, when the neutral stimulus is presented to the individual after this, the neutral stimulus will then produce the unconditioned response which is fear. The unconditioned response is then known as conditioned response and the neutral stimulus is then known as the conditioned stimulus. The individual has now acquired a phobia. This phobia may generalise to other things.

• The behavioural approach then states that through operant conditioning, phobias are then maintained. As when the phobic stimulus is presented to the individual, the individual will then avoid the phobic stimulus and this is positive reinforcement which reinforces the phobia as when the individual avoids the phobic stimulus, they feel a sense of relief which is more pleasurable than the feeling of anxiety when in the presence of the phobic stimulus. By avoiding the phobic stimulus, there is also negative reinforcement as removing the phobic stimulus from theb individuals presence avoids and removes the negative emotions of panic and fear.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Behavioural Approach of explaining Phobias?

1. An advantage of the Behavioural Approach of explaining Phobias is that it has good explanatory power as it was a step forward from Watson and Rayners classical conditioning and explained how phobias are maintained overtime which then had important implications for therapies as it explains why patients need to be exposed to the stimulus.

2. A disadvanatage of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias is that there may be an alternative explanation to avoidance behaviour. Not all behaviour associated with phobias seems to be the result of anxiety reduction, at least not in more complex phobias like agoraphobia. There is evidence to suggest that at least some avoidance behaviour appears to be motivated by positive feelings of safety. This means that avoidance behaviour is less to do with actually avoiding thr phobic stimulus, but instead to remain with the feeling of safety. This is a problem for the bheavioural approach of explaining phobias.

What is the Behavioural approach to treating phobias?

• One behavioural approach to treating phobias is Systematic Desensitisation. Systematic Desensitisation is based on the theory of ‘Reciprocal Inhibition’ which is the theory that it is impossible to be both relaxed and afraid at the same time, as one emotion blocks out the other.

• The process of Systematic Desensitisation involves:

  • 1. The creation of a Anxiety hierarchy that is formed with the patient anf therapist, with the most frightening stimulus at the bottom and the least frightening at the top. For example:

    • 1. Think about spiders

    • 2. See a picture of a spider

    • 3. Be in the same room as a spider in a glass tank

    • 4. Sit next to a spider that is in a glass tank with the lid closed

    • 5. Sit next to a spider that is in a glass tank with the lid open

    • 6 Put hand in the tank that the spider is in

    • 7. Hold the spider in hands

  • 2. Relaxation training - As part of the process of Systematic Desensitisation, the therapist teaches the patient to relax as deeply as possible. This might involve breathing excercises or, alternatively., the patient might learn mental imagery techniques. Patients can b taught to imagine themselves in relaxing situations or they might learn meditation. Drugs such as valium can also be used to make the patient relax.

  • 3. Exposure to the phobic stimulus - The final part of the Systematic Desensitisation process is that the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst in a relaxed state. This will take place acrorss several sessiosn, using the Anxiety Hierarchy and starting of at the top of the hierarchy ands working towards the highest anxiety enducing situtaion. Treatment is successful when the patient can stay relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy.

• A second behavioural approach to treating phobias is flooding. Flooding is the process of immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus in an attempt to cure and get rid of the phobia. Flooding is done in one long sessions hwere the participant has given their fully informed consent to be immediately exposed to their phobic stimulus. The aim and desired outcome of flooding is extinction of the phobia, where the participants phobia has gone entirely. However, although full informed consent is given, there are still ethical criticisms as the process is quite stressful for the participant, and may even result in the participant becoming traumatized. The participant us encouraged to use relaxation techniques if they feel their anxiety level is too high.

What are some advantages and disadvantages of flooding to treat phobias?

1. An advantage of flooding to treat phobias is that it is cost effective. Flooding is at least effective as other treatments for specific phobias. Studies comparing flooding to cognitive therapies have found that flooding is highly effective and quicker than other methods such as SD.

2. A disadvantage of flooding is that it is highly traumatic for some patients. The problem with flooding is that although participants give their consent, they are often unwilling to see it through till the end. This is a limitation as time and money is wasted preparng patients for it, only for them to not finish it.
   

What are some advantages and disadvantages of Systematic Desensitisation?

1. An advantage of Systematic Desensitisation is that it is very effective. Research done by Gilroy followed up 42 patients who had been treated for arachnophobia (fear of spiders) in 3 fourty five minute sessions of systematic desensitisation. Spider phobia was assessed by the individuals response to spiders and answering a spider questionnaire. a control group was treated by relaxation without exposure to the phobic stimulus (spiders). At both 3 months and 33 months after the treatment, the systematic desensitisation grouo was much less scared of spiders.

2. Another advantage of systematic desensitisation is that it is suitable for a range of patients. Alternatives to systematic desensitisation such as flooding are not well suited for some patients, for example, patients with learning difficulties can find it hard to understand what is happening during flooding. For these patients, systematic desensitisation is probably the most appropriate treatment.

Depression

• Depression is described as a mental disorder characterised by low moods and low energy levels.

What are the Behavioural Characteristics of depression?

• Reduced energy levels - Reduced energy levels are when the individual is lathargic and is unable or unwilling to be productive

• Psychomotor agitation - Psychomotor agitation is when the individual struggles to relax and ends up pacing around

• Aggression and self harm - Aggression and self harm are when the individual things such as quiting their job, self harm and suicide/suicidal thoughts.

• Increase or decrease in sleep and eating - Depression can cause insomnia, hypersomnia, weight loss or weight gain.

What are some Emotional Characteristics of depression?

• Lowered mood - when a depressed individual has a lowered mood, they may describe themselves as sad.

• Anger - the depressed individual will have more negative than positive emotions

• Reduced self-esteem - the depressed person may self loath

What are some cognitive characteristics of depression?

• Poor concentration - the depressed individual will have trouble concentrating

• The depressed individual will pay more attention to the negatives in a situation and will be able to recall negative events easier than positive

• Absolutist thinking - the depressed individual will believe that everything is either all good or all bad and that there is no inbetween.

What are the Cognitive explanations of depression?

• The first cognitive explanation of depression is Beck’s cognitive theory of depression which had three parts to explain why some people were more vulnerable to depression than others. The first part is ‘Faulty Information Processing’. Faulty Information Processing is a type of thinking that can lead individuals to pay more attention to to negative aspects of the situation and ignore the positive aspects. For example, if an individual had won £1 million in the lottery, they would be focusing on the fact that someone had won £10 million the week before instead of thinking about what they could do with the £1 million they have won. Faulty information processing also leads individuals to think in ‘black and white’ terms and that every thing is all good or all bad. The second part of Beck’s cognitive theory is ’Negative Schemas’. A schema is a package of information that acts as a mental framework for the interpretation of sensory information. A self schema is a package of the information that we have about ourselves. Schemas are what we use to interpret ourselves and the world so if this schema is negative, then all the information that we have of ourselves will be viewed negatively. Negative schemas can then cause people think negative things about themsleves. The third part of Beck’s theory is the ’Negative Triad’. The Negative triad is the idea that people with depression are trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts that first begin with a negative view of self, then a negative view of the world, and then a negative view on the future.

• An advantage of Becks cognitive theory of depression is that there is practical application for it in CBT. All aspects of depression can be identified and challenged in CBT and includes the components of the Negtaive Triad. This is an advantage of Becks theory because it translates well into a succesfull therapy. A disadvantage of becks theory is that it does not explain the complex symptoms of depression such as hallucinations, deep anger and bizzare beliefs. Becks theory fails to explain these things

• The second cognitive explanation of depression is Ellis’s ABC model. Ellis argued that there are common irrational beliefs that underline much of drepression and that sufferers fo depression base their lives off of these irrational beliefs. A in the mod stands for the ‘Activating Event’ which refers to the event that started of the individuals depression. The activating evnt is usually an event or an experience that was negative. ‘B’ in the model stands for ‘Beliefs’ which means that once the activating event has happened, this leads to the individual having irrational beliefs which were caused by the Activating Event. ‘C’ in the model stands for ‘Consequences’ of the irrational beliefs. This consequence can usually be emotional and behavioural which is what leads to the depression.

• A disadvantage of Ellis’ ABC model is that it is only a partial explanation for depression as there are many cases where depression has been caused by biological and hormonal issues in the brain which means that Ellis’ model only applies to depression that has been caused by a specific event. Another disadvantage of depression of Ellis’ model is that the model also does not explain the more complex symptoms of depression such as halluciantions, bizzare beliefs and deep anger.

What is the Cognitive approach of treating depression?

• The cognitive approach to treating depression is CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy)

• In order to treat depression, the root cause of the depression needs to be discovered, and this may lie in the way that people think about the world and themselves.

• CBT aims to change the way a client thinks, by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes and this will lead to a change in behaviour as a response to new thinking patterns.

• Most CBT theraposts draw on Ellis’ and Becks models of depression. CBT focuses on challenging the negative thoughts about ones self, the world and the future. These thoughts can be directly challenged and the client is encouraged to test the reality of their negative beliefs.

• Clients, after a session of CBT, be given homework tasks such as record when they enjoyed an event or when people were nice to them. this is sometimes referred to as the patient as a scientist’, investigating the reality of their negative beliefs in the way a scientist would.

• In Ellis’ therapy, there is an added D and E to the model. The ‘D’ stands for Disputing, and the ‘E’ stands for Effecive new beliefs that replace the old irrational ones.

• Beck putforward three types of disputing

  • Empirical disputing - which is disputing whether there is actual evidence to support their negative belief

  • Logical disputing - involves disputing whether the nagtive thought logically follows from the facts

  • Pragmatic disputing - involves disputing how the negative thought is going to help the person.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Cognitive Therapies to treat depression

1. An advantage of the cognitive treatments of depression is that they are effctive. A study by March had compared the effectiveness of CBT and anti-depressants. 86% of the CBT group improved comapred to the 81%.