In 1855, Thomas Crawford, an eminent American sculptor, was commissioned to design a statue for the Capitol dome in Washington, D.C.
Proposed a statue titled "Freedom", depicted as a female figure wearing a liberty cap.
Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War and a prominent slaveholder, objected to this design.
Davis argued that the liberty cap, which had become synonymous with the emancipated slave in ancient Rome, could imply a connection between the liberty of freeborn Americans and the slaves' quest for freedom.
To avoid controversy, Davis insisted on replacing the liberty cap with a military symbol, a feathered helmet.
Crawford died in Italy in 1857, before seeing the completed statue.
Two years later, the colossal Statue of Freedom, weighing 15,000 pounds, was transported to the United States in pieces and assembled under the guidance of Philip Reed, a slave craftsman.
The statue was installed atop the Capitol in 1863, during the Civil War, a time when Jefferson Davis had become President of the Confederate States.
This dispute illustrates how, by the mid-1850s, issues of public art were increasingly intertwined with the debates on slavery.
Fruits of Manifest Destiny
In the 1840s, the issue of slavery became central to American politics due to territorial expansion, not through the moral arguments of abolitionism.
By 1840, almost all the land east of the Mississippi was claimed by white settlers following the Indian removal policy.
The economic depression that began in 1837 led to a push for migration westward, with many settlers heading to Oregon, noted for its beautiful and fertile Willamette Valley.
Prior to the 1840s, American presence in Oregon had been limited to fur traders and explorers.
Between 1840 and 1845, approximately 5,000 emigrants undertook the grueling 2,000-mile journey by wagon train from Missouri to Oregon.
By 1860, nearly 300,000 individuals faced hardships such as disease, starvation, mountainous terrain, and conflicts with Native Americans during the overland trek to Oregon and California.
The 1840s also marked the intensifying belief in "manifest destiny", the idea that it was America’s divine right to expand to the Pacific Ocean.
Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and California
The settlement of Oregon did not directly invoke the slavery issue, but the acquisition of territories from Mexico did.
When Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, it was larger than the United States, with a population of about 6.5 million.
Its northern provinces, California and New Mexico, were sparsely populated and surrounded by Indian territories.
New Mexico's population consisted of around 30,000 people of Spanish origin, 10,000 Pueblo Indians, and various nomadic tribes such as Apaches and Comanches.
With the establishment of the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, the economy of New Mexico became entwined with the U.S., diminishing trade with Mexico.
In 1834, the Mexican government sought to lessen the influence of the Catholic Church by dissolving mission lands and emancipating Indians working for the friars.
This land ended up primarily with a new class of Mexican cattle ranchers, known as Californios.
The existing population in California during this time was about 3,200 individuals, predominantly missionaries and soldiers, overshadowed by approximately 170,000 Indigenous peoples, including around 150,000 from unsubdued tribes.
Texas Revolt
The initial part of Mexico to be heavily settled by Americans was Texas, which at the time had a non-Indian population of only about 2,000 people of Spanish origin (Tejanos).
The Spanish government allowed Moses Austin to colonize Texas with Americans in 1820, granting him a large tract of land, which his son Stephen Austin continued.
Settlers were required to become Mexican citizens and convert to Catholicism. By 1830, the American population reached 7,000, surpassing the number of Tejanos.
In 1830, the Mexican government annulled existing land contracts and prohibited further immigration from the U.S. due to concerns over its influence.
American settlers, led by Stephen Austin, demanded autonomy and were joined by some Tejanos due to the economic benefits of their presence.
The issue of slavery highlighted tensions, as Mexico had abolished slavery but had permitted American settlers to bring enslaved individuals.
In 1835, General Antonio López de Santa Anna sent troops to Texas, leading to the Texas Revolt.
Santa Anna's storming of the Alamo on March 6, 1836, resulted in the deaths of 187 defenders, igniting Texan resolve, captured by the battle cry "Remember the Alamo".
Sam Houston led Texan troops to victory over Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto.
After the war, Houston became the first president of the Republic of Texas, which sought annexation into the U.S. in 1837.
President Martin Van Buren delayed the annexation due to concerns over the potential addition of another slave state.
Despite this, settlers continued to flock to Texas, many being slave-owners seeking fertile land for cotton cultivation.