Napoleon's Rise to Power and the Coup of 18 Brumaire

Napoleon returned to France after 500 days in Egypt and Syria, greeted as a conquering hero, amidst a crisis in the country. Banditry was rampant, with Napoleon’s luggage being stolen, while prices and taxes soared. Trade had been decimated due to war and blockade, compounded by widespread conscription, censorship, and corruption. France faced a powerful coalition of enemies, although General Masséna’s victory at Zurich provided some respite; nevertheless, the nation remained unsafe. Many saw Bonaparte as a savior, with propaganda highlighting his victories in Italy and Egypt, reflected in newspapers and plays that celebrated him. There were cries of 'Hurrah for Bonaparte! He will save the country!' yet some in government contemplated court-martialing him for abandoning his army and flouting quarantine laws. However, Napoleon possessed a letter from the Directory ordering his return, even though he had acted before receiving it. There was a significant concern that acting against Napoleon could backfire due to his rising popularity.

Napoleon held contempt for the Directory, telling General Thiébault that the leaders were dragging France down. He believed he could govern better, given his achievements. Since 1795, France had been ruled by 'The Directory', a five-man executive body with members serving for five years. In 1799, the Directory included Paul Barras, Napoleon’s first patron and a corrupt political operator; Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a former priest and political thinker; Louis Gohier, a veteran Jacobin; Jean-Francois Moulin, a Jacobin general; and Pierre Roger-Ducos, a moderate ally of Sieyès. The legislature comprised the ‘Council of 500’, which drafted laws, and the ‘Council of Elders’, which approved them, with members dressing in extravagant costumes reminiscent of the ancient Republic of Rome. The Directory was broadly viewed as corrupt and ineffective.

Napoleon began residing in the home of the Beauharnais family, amidst a politically unsettled and dangerous climate. Lucien Bonaparte, his younger brother and President of the Council of 500, served as a contact point. Napoleon reconciled with his wife, Josephine, who became a political ally through her social connections. Paris was filled with rumors of plots from ex-Jacobins (the Left) and royalists (the Right). Maurice de Talleyrand, a former foreign minister, proposed a plan to replace the government, which Napoleon welcomed. Talleyrand disclosed that Sieyès, a Directory member, also aimed to overthrow the regime, seeking to abolish the Directory and create a new constitution. Sieyès planned to eliminate the chaotic legislature and weak executive, advocating for radical reforms to save the Republic. He had support from Director Roger-Ducos, the President of the Council of Elders Louis-Nicolas Lemercier, and Lucien Bonaparte. Minister of Police Joseph Fouché was aware of the conspiracy but would not intervene. Sieyès was in search of a military figurehead, a ‘Sword’; his first choice was General Joubert, who was killed at the Battle of Novi. General Macdonald was deemed too honest, and ultimately, General Moreau recommended Bonaparte, despite Sieyès's reservations about him.

In the Coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon and Sieyès recognized the Republic's peril and agreed to a coup to overthrow the government, planned for 7th November, or 16th Brumaire in the French Revolutionary calendar. The operation was risky and would span two days, with Sieyès carrying cash for a quick escape and Fouché drafting arrest orders for Napoleon if necessary. Napoleon slept with two loaded pistols, but the coup was postponed by 48 hours. In the interim, Napoleon dined with Generals Bernadotte, Moreau, and Jourdan to gain their support. Moreau agreed to help, and Jourdan vowed not to interfere, but Bernadotte was outraged. On 9th November in Paris, Napoleon informed 60 officers of his intention to save the Republic, gaining their loyalty. He charmed General Lefebvre, the commander of Paris, by presenting him with his sword from the Battle of the Pyramids. The Council of Elders met at 7 am and passed measures appointing Napoleon as commander of the Paris military district under the pretext of a Jacobin plot and requiring the legislature to move to the Château de Saint-Cloud, protecting the conspirators from the Paris mob. At 10 am, Napoleon reassured the Council of Elders that they sought a republic founded on true liberty, civil liberties, and national representation, proclaiming, "I swear it!" Sieyès and Roger-Ducos resigned, urging Barras, Gohier, and Moulin to do the same. Barras resigned after accepting a bribe from Talleyrand, while Gohier and Moulin were placed under house arrest by General Moreau, effectively rendering the executive defunct.

The events at Saint-Cloud saw Napoleon asserting his position, stating, "Tomorrow, either we will sleep at the Luxembourg… or we’ll end up here." Arriving at Saint-Cloud, he met with Murat as 6,000 troops surrounded the Château. The heavy military presence caused concern among deputies as sessions began at 1 pm with a tumultuous mood. The sudden resignations, troop presence, and rumors of a Jacobin plot created a charged atmosphere during discussions. The Presidents of both Councils struggled to gain control, leading Napoleon to lose patience and burst into the Council of Elders, where he faced heckling. When questioned about the Constitution, Napoleon retorted, "The Constitution? You yourselves annihilated it!" He accused dissenters of being funded by the British and declared, "may the lightning of war crush him instantaneously. Remember, that I walk accompanied by the god of war and by the god of fortune!" Following this outburst, he was dragged from the chamber by his staff and moved to the Council of 500, where Lucien had lost control, facing abuse from deputies calling him a "tyrant" and “Cromwell.” He was jostled but was rescued by Lefebvre and the grenadiers. Feeling rattled, Napoleon remarked to Augereau that it was worse during the Battle of Arcole. The coup was precarious, but Lucien seized the moment by declaring that the Council was being threatened by deputies armed with daggers, insisting, "I swear that I will stab my own brother to the heart if he ever makes an assault on the liberty of Frenchmen."

Ultimately, troops led by General Murat flooded the Council of 500, where he proclaimed, "Citizens, you are dissolved," ordering the removal of deputies, who scattered in chaos, some leaping from windows. A 'rump Council of 500' was formed, which approved the dissolution of the Directory, adjourned both Councils, and appointed three provisional Consuls: Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, Pierre Roger-Ducos, and General Napoleon Bonaparte. Thus, Napoleon rose to the pinnacle of political power in France, among the three tasked with drafting a new constitution, but through his brilliance and popularity, he soon overshadowed his colleagues. Ultimately, only one man would emerge to rule France: The First Consul – Napoleon Bonaparte, who planned a new military campaign in Italy.