APPROACHES

4.1 ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Key terms

Introspection — the first systematic experimental system to study the mind, breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures (thoughts, images and sensations)

Psychology — the scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience

Science — a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. Aim is to discover general laws

Wundt

• opened the first psychological lab in Germany

• Marked the beginning of scientific psychology

• Analysed the nature of the human consciousness using introspection

Introspection

• used to investigate mental processes (language and perception)

• He and his co-workers recorded their responses to stimuli

• Divided observations into 3 categories: thoughts, images and sensations

Structuralism

• structuralism = isolating the structure of consciousness

• Stimuli was always presented in the same order with the same instructions

Evaluation

Scientific

• his methods were systematic and well controlled

• The lab ensured extraneous variables were not a factor and procedures/ instructions were standardised so everyone was tested in the same way

• This research is seen as a forerunner to later scientific approaches (e.g behaviourist)

Subjective data

• relied on self report, so data would be subjective

• It is difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour from subjective data, so cannot predict future behaviour

• So Wundt would not meet the criteria for scientific enquiry

Wundts contribution

• referred to as the founder of modern psychological

• So he set the foundation for later approaches

The emergence of psychology as a science

• 17th-19th century - psychology is a branch of philosophy, experimental philosophy

• 1879 - Wundt opens the first psychological lab

• 1900s - Freud looks into the unconscious mind, the psychodynamic approach. Develops psychoanalysis, person centred therapy

• 1913 - Watson and Skinner establish the behaviourist approach

• 1950s - Rogers and Maslow develop the humanistic approach, free will

• 1950s - the computer leads to the cognitive approach

• 1960s - Bandura proposes the social learning theory

• 1980s onwards - biological approach emerges due to advances in technology

• Eve of 21st century - cognitive neuroscience emerges, bringing together cognitive and biological

Evaluation

Modern psychology

• can claim to be scientific as it has the same aims as natural sciences

• To describe, predict and control behaviour

• The learning approaches, cognitive and biological rely on scientific methods (e.g lab studies) to have control and be unbiased

• So psychology is a scientific discipline

Subjective data

• Not all approaches use objective methods

• The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, focusing on individual and subjective experiences

• This uses case studies which are not representative and because humans are active in research, they may respond to demand characteristics

• So a scientific approach may not be desirable or possible

Paradigm

• Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm (a set of principles and methods that everyone agrees on)

• So psychology is not a science because it does not have a paradigm

4.2 LEARNING APPROACHES: BEHAVIOURIST

Key terms

Behaviourist approach — a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

Classical conditioning — learning by association

Operant conditioning — learning through consequences

Reinforcement — a consequence of behaviour, that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated

Assumptions

• Watson rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague and hard to measure

• Rely on lab studies (for control and objectivity)

• Believe all behaviour is learnt, babies are a blank slate which is written on by experience

Classical conditioning — Pavlov

• Was able to show how a neutral stimulus (a bell), can elicit a learned response (conditioned response) through association

Operant conditioning — skinner

• found behaviour is shaped by positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment

• Suggesting learning is an active process

• Rats would activate a lever to receive food, rats would activate a lever to stop an electric shock

Application

• Skinners rats can also explain video game addiction (high scores and rewards)

Evaluation

Well-controlled research

• behaviourists focus on lab research (highly controlled, removing extraneous variables, objective), e.g skinner

• So they have scientific credibility

— counterpoint — may be oversimplified, does not take into account mental processes (such as social learning, and cognitive)

Real world application

• Token economy systems (used in institutions, prisons and psychiatric wards) - operant conditioning

• Treatment of phobias - classical conditioning

Environmental determinism

• ignores the influence of free will on behaviour

Ethical issues

• Animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural body weight so they were always hungry

4.3 LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Key terms

Social learning theory — a way of explaining behaviour that includes direct and indirect reinforcement (learning theory + cognitive factors)

Imitation — copying the behaviour of others

Identification — when the observer associates themselves with a role model

Modelling — imitating the behaviour of a role model

Vicarious reinforcement — observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

Mediational processes — cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

Assumptions

• bandura, behaviour is learned through experience and observation/ imitation of others

• Occurs directly through classical/ operant conditioning and indirectly

Vicarious reinforcement

• Indirect learning through observation, the learner will imitate the behaviour if its seen to be rewarded

Role of mediational processes

— cognitive factors involved in learning —

1. Attention - noticing certain behaviours

2. Retention - remembering the behaviour

3. Motor reproduction - performing the behaviour

4. Motivation - the will to perform it (was it rewarded or punished)

Identification

• People are more likely to imitate those they identity with, such as a role model

• So they’d identify with that person and imitate the role models behaviour

• Role model = similar characteristics, are attractive, have high status

Banduras research

• young children watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards the bobo doll

• Later the children were observed and they behaved more aggressively towards the doll than those who observed a non-aggressive adult

Application

• James bulger - a toddler murdered by two 10 year olds. They were inspired by a horror film

• Shows the media can lead to violence (through SLT)

Evaluation

Cognitive factors

• recognises the role of cognitive factors in learning

• So SLT is a more comprehensive explanation, by recognising the role of mediational processes

• So less deterministic

• Counterpoint - doesn’t recognise biological differences in social learning, e.g observational learning is due to mirror neurons. So biological differences are underemphasised

Lab studies

• participants may have responded to demand characteristics from being watched and with the main purpose of a bobo doll being to strike it

• So results are not representative of everyday life

Real world application

• has cross cultural application, can explain how cultures are transmitted

• Application to the media and James Bulger

Less deterministic

• emphasised reciprocal determinism - that we aren’t just influenced by external factors, we also have an element of free will

• However this contrasts with the behaviourist approach as they deny the possibility of free will

4.4 COGNITIVE APPROACH

Key terms

Cognitive approach - focuses on how mental processes (thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour

Internal mental processes - operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

Schema - a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. Developed from experience

Inference - where cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

Cognitive neuroscience - the scientific study of the biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

Assumptions

• argues that mental processes can and should be studied scientifically

• So investigates things neglected by behaviourists (memory, perception and thinking)

• These are studied indirectly by making inferences based on observable behaviour

Role of schema

• Babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours

• As we get older the schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated

• Schemas enable us to process lots of information quickly, this prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

• However they may also distort our perceptions of sensory information

Theoretical and computer models

• theoretical models are abstract and computer models are concrete

• Theoretical model - the informational processing approach. Suggests that information flow through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. Include input, storage and retrieval (e.g multi store model)

• Computer models - programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans. Showing that similar processes occur in the human mind. This has helped to develop artificial intelligence

Emergence of cognitive neuroscience

• brain mapping: Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could impair speech production (called the Broca’s area)

• In the last 25 years, advances in brain imaging techniques (fMRI and PET scans) mean that scientists can systematically observe the neurological basis of mental processes Assumptions

• E.g able to show the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD

• E.g Buckner and Peterson found that different types of LTM are found is different sides of the prefrontal cortex

• Recently able to use computer generated models that ‘read’ the brain. Which has lead to the development of ‘brain fingerprinting’. Future application - can be used to analyse brain waves to see if eyewitnesses are lying in court

Evaluation

Scientific methods

• cognitive approach uses objective, scientific methods

• Use highly controlled lab studies to infer cognitive processes (objective and reliable data)

• Cognitive neuroscience enhances the scientific basis of studying the brain by using biology and cognitive

• So the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis

Counterpoint - relies on inference rather than direct observation. So may be too theoretical. Also research studies typically use artificial stimuli (e.g memory tests using word lists). So research may lack external validity

Real world application

• has made an important contribution to AI. These revolutionise how we live in the future

• Cognitive principles have also been applied to treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimonies

Machine reductionism

• the computer analogy ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system

• E.g research has found that memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as anxiety on eyewitnesses

• So machine reductionism weakens the validity of the cognitive approach

Soft determinism

• the view that human behaviour is determined by internal and external factors, but we still have an element of free will

• Other approaches such as biological, believe in hard determinism. So behaviour is determined by conditioning and genes.

4.5 BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

Key terms

Biological approach - a perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as as genetic inheritance and neural function

Genes - they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which code for physical features. These are transmitted from parents to offspring

Biological structure - an arrangement of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

Assumptions

• everything psychological is at first biological

• So to understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures

The neurochemistry basis of behaviour

• Neurochemistry - the chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

• This occurs using neurotransmitters, an imbalance of these can cause mental disorders

• E.g low levels of serotonin in OCD, and overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia

The genetic basis of behaviour

• investigated using twin studies

• Analyse concordance rates - the extent to which twins share the same characteristic

• If it’s genetic we’d expect monozygotic (identical) twins to be concordant. Whereas in dizygotic twins they would not be concordant

• In both cases the environment is assumed to be constant

Genotype and phenotype

• Genotype - the particular set of genes a person possesses

• Phenotype - the characteristics of a person, determined by genes and the environment

• Seen through monozygotic twins, despite having the same genes, the phenotype is different

• So human behaviour depends on interactions between nature and nurture

Genotype and phenotype application

• PKU is a rare genetic disorder that can be detected in babies using a heel prick test

• If unchecked it can cause severe learning difficulties for those who carry the genotype

• If detected early the child is placed on a restricted diet and will not develop learning difficulties

Evolution and behaviour

• Evolution - the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population, over successive generations

• Darwin - natural selection. Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will continue in future generations

Evaluation

Real world application

• Led to the use of drug therapy. E.g using antidepressants for clinical depression which increase the levels of serotonin

• This has helped people manage their condition

• Counterpoint - dont work for everyone. 21 antidepressants were compared and found wide variations in effectiveness. So biological cant account for all cases

Scientific methods

• uses objective methods such as fMRIs and EEGs

• So advances in technology mean its possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes without bias

• So based on objective and reliable data

Biological determinism

• suggests people lack free will, behaviour is based on genes which we have no control over

• Can be problematic, e.g in crime. Excusing criminals for their behaviour because it is controlled by their genes

• So the approach is too simplistic

Natural selection

• Popper criticises Darwin. He says that a key criteria of science is to be able to falsify

• Darwin is unable to falsify the theory of natural selection as we cannot show that its happening, only that its taken place in the past

• However others would argue the evidence for natural selection is very strong (e.g fossils)

4.6 PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

Key Concepts

• Psychodynamic approach: Focuses on unconscious forces that shape human behavior; most influences are unconscious.

• The unconscious: Part of the mind outside awareness, influencing thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

• Id: Primitive, instinctual; seeks immediate gratification (pleasure principle).

• Ego: Reality principle; mediates between Id and Superego, uses defense mechanisms.

• Superego: Moral conscience; internalizes societal standards (morality principle).

• Defence mechanisms: Strategies by the Ego to manage conflict between Id and Superego (e.g., repression, denial, displacement).

• Psychosexual stages: Five developmental stages; unresolved conflict can affect adult behavior.

The Role of the Unconscious

• Conscious mind = tip of the iceberg.

• Most mental processes are unconscious (biological drives, instincts).

• Preconscious: Thoughts/memories not currently conscious but accessible.

• Repressed memories can influence behavior, dreams, or slips of the tongue (parapraxes).

Structure of Personality

• Id: Present at birth, selfish, seeks immediate pleasure.

• Ego: Develops ~2 years, mediates reality vs. instinct; uses defense mechanisms.

• Superego: Forms ~5 years, internalizes moral standards (phallic stage).

Psychosexual Stages

Defence Mechanisms

• Repression: Forcing distressing memory out of conscious mind.

• Denial: Refusing to acknowledge reality.

• Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a safer target.

Examples in action:

• Forgetting trauma (denial).

• Anger at partner redirected to slamming a door (displacement).

Case Study: Little Hans & Oedipus Complex

• Oedipus complex: Boys desire mother, fear father (phallic stage).

• Displacement: Hans’ fear of father → fear of horses.

• Girls experience penis envy → desire father, identify with mother (Electra complex).

Evaluation

Strengths

• Introduced psychotherapy (talking therapy, counselling).

• Explains wide range of behavior; influential in psychology and literature.

Weaknesses

• Not scientific; difficult to test (untestable concepts).

• Limited applicability for severe mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia).

• Psychoanalytic claims based on case studies → low generalizability.

Extra concept: Psychic determinism

• Behavior determined by unconscious conflicts.

• Criticism: too extreme; discounts free will.

4.7 HUMANISTIC APPROACH

Core assumptions

Focus on *free will** → humans actively choose behaviour (not determined).

Emphasis on *subjective experience** (how individuals perceive the world).

Humans are *innately good** and motivated to grow.

A *holistic approach** → considers the whole person, not reductionist.

Key concepts

Free will

Humans are *self-determining**.

* Behaviour is not controlled solely by biological or environmental factors.

Self-actualisation

The drive to achieve *full potential**.

* Ultimate goal of development.

* Only possible once lower needs are satisfied.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

1. Physiological (food, water)

2. Safety

3. Love & belonging

4. Esteem

5. Self-actualisation

Lower *deficiency needs** must be met before higher growth needs.

The self (Rogers)

* Self-concept: how you see yourself.

* Ideal self: who you want to be.

Congruence

* When self-concept ≈ ideal self → psychological health.

Incongruence

* Gap between self and ideal self → anxiety, low self-worth.

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Conditions of worth

* Love is conditional (“I’ll love you if…”).

* Leads to incongruence.

Unconditional positive regard

* Acceptance regardless of behaviour.

* Promotes healthy development.

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Counselling (Client-centred therapy)

* Developed by Rogers.

* Non-directive (client leads session).

* Therapist provides:

* Empathy

* Genuineness

* Unconditional positive regard

Goal: reduce incongruence and support self-actualisation.

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Evaluation of Humanistic Approach

Not reductionist

Considers *whole person**.

* More realistic than breaking behaviour into parts.

Positive approach

Focus on *growth and potential**.

* More optimistic than Freud/behaviourism.

Lack of scientific evidence

* Difficult to test concepts (e.g. self-actualisation).

* Relies on subjective data.

Cultural bias

* Individualistic focus (self-growth).

* Less relevant in collectivist cultures.

Limited application

* Less practical in treating severe disorders.

* More useful for mild issues (e.g. counselling).