Bolshevik Consolidation of Power and the Rise of Stalinism

Bolshevik ideology was rooted in the philosophy of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, explicitly outlined in the "Communist Manifesto" ( $1848$ ) and "Das Kapital" ( $1867$ ).
Marxism envisioned a classless utopian state achieved through a struggle of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie.
In $1903$ , the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party split into the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin (advocating a centralized, hierarchical structure), and the Mensheviks, led by Martov (supporting a more democratic structure).
Lenin's "April Theses" redefined Bolshevik goals, calling for "peace, land, and bread" and the transfer of all state power to worker councils, or Soviets.

The Bolsheviks seized control from the Provisional Government in October $1917$ , coordinated largely by Trotsky through the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC).
The new government, known as Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars), was established with Lenin as Chairman and Trotsky as Commissar of Foreign Affairs.
Initial decrees focused on land redistribution, workers' control of production, and granting self-determination to national groups.
The Cheka was created as a secret police force under Felix Dzerzhinsky to suppress political opposition, eventually initiating the "Red Terror."

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ( $1918$ ): Lenin exited WWI by accepting massive territorial and economic losses, including $32\%$ of farm land and $75\%$ of coal mines.
Civil War: The Red Army, led by Trotsky, fought anti-communist White Army forces; Bolsheviks secured victory by $1922$ , forming the Soviet Union (USSR).
War Communism was replaced by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in $1921$ , introducing a capitalist model and privatization to stabilize the economy and appease peasants.

: Lenin died on $25$ January $1924$ without a clear successor; his testament warned against Stalin’s rudeness and excessive power.
Major contenders included Trotsky (advocating "Permanent Revolution") and Stalin (proposing "Socialism in One Country").
Stalin utilized his role as General Secretary to build a power base, forming a troika with Zinoviev and Kamenev to isolate Trotsky.
By $1927$ , Trotsky was expelled from the party, and by $1929$ , Stalin was the undisputed leader of the USSR.

Five Year Plans: Aimed for rapid modernization; the first plan ( $1928$ ) saw coal production increase by $84\%$ and electricity by $168\%$ .
Collectivization : Private farms were replaced by Kolkhoz (state farms), leading to massive peasant resistance and a famine in Ukraine ( $1932$ - $33$ ) involving $5$ million deaths.
The Great Purge (Yezhovshchina): Following the $1934$ murder of Sergei Kirov, Stalin purged the party, army (executing $81$ of $103$ generals), and civilians through show trials and the NKVD.
Gulags: Forced labor camps were used to drive rapid industrialization and handle political prisoners.

The "Great Retreat": The Family Code of $1936$ reversed early Bolshevik social freedom, making divorce expensive and abortion illegal.
Urbanization: The salary-earning workforce tripled, and projects like the Moscow Metro ( $1935$ ) showcased modern progress.
Foreign Policy: Evolved from supporting world revolution via Comintern ( $1919$ ) to pragmatic alliances, such as the Treaty of Rapallo ( $1922$ ) and the Nazi-Soviet Pact of $1939$ .