Module 37: motivational concepts

37-1 Define motivation as psychologists use the term and identify the perspectives useful for studying motivated behavior.
37-2 Explain how some needs are more compelling than others.

Instinct: A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Motivations arise from the interplay between:
- Nature: Bodily “push”, referring to physiological needs.
- Nurture: The “pulls” from personal experiences, thoughts, and culture.
Motivations can drive behavior, impacting life positively or negatively (e.g., substance use disorders where cravings override basic needs).

Psychologists view motivated behavior through four main perspectives:

Instinct Theory: Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors, though it has been largely replaced by the evolutionary perspective.
Drive-Reduction Theory: Emphasizes responding to inner pushes and pulls created by physiological needs.
Arousal Theory: Explores finding the right level of stimulation for optimal performance.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Investigates the priority of some needs over others.

Rise of Instinct Theory attributed to Charles Darwin's influence.
- Critics used labels like “self-abasement instinct” or “self-assertion instinct” to explain behaviors, leading to a naming fad.
- The approach collapsed as it did not genuinely explain behaviors but merely labeled them.
Qualifying an instinct: A complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned (reference to Tinbergen, 1951).
- Examples of unlearned behaviors include:
- Imprinting in birds.
- Salmon returning to birthplaces.
- Certain human behaviors such as infants rooting for a nipple and sucking.
Instinct theory posited instincts as sources of motivation but overlooked behaviors influenced by physiological needs and psychological wants.

Drives: Derived from physiological needs (e.g., food or water) that create an aroused, motivated state, compelling actions to satisfy the need.
Drive-Reduction Theory: Indicates that physiological need increases the psychological drive to satisfy that need, thus aiding in the maintenance of homeostasis (i.e., keeping a steady internal state).
- Homeostasis: A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state, much like a thermostat regulates a room's temperature through feedback loops.
- Example: If the body’s temperature decreases, blood vessels constrict and there’s a drive to seek warmth (e.g., clothing, environment).
Individuals are not only pushed by their inner needs but also pulled by incentives, positive or negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior.
- Example: The aroma of food or the sight of attractive individuals can activate underlying drives.
Impulse Satisfaction: When needs coincide with incentives, individuals feel a strong drive (e.g., hunger combined with the aroma of pizza).
- Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards: Tasks can be motivated by external rewards (e.g., getting paid) versus internal satisfaction (e.g., enjoyment from baking).

Not all motivated behaviors aim to reduce drives; some increase arousal.
- Well-fed animals may explore their environment aimed at gaining information without a specific need to satisfy.
Curiosity Drive: Motivates behaviors unrelated to immediate physiological needs (e.g., monkeys investigating latches or infants exploring their surroundings).
High arousal can yield excitement, amplifying motivation in activities such as exploring, music, and adventurous careers.
- Example: George Mallory’s statement about climbing Everest “Because it's there” highlights intrinsic motivation driven by exploration and challenge.

The Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance increases with arousal to an optimal level, after which performance can decrease (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).
- Easy tasks benefit from higher arousal, while difficult tasks perform better with lower arousal.
- Example: For difficult tests, a moderate Arousal state enhances performance, while high anxiety can be counterproductive.

Optimal arousal levels vary based on task complexity:
- Difficult tasks require lower arousal for optimal performance.
- Simple tasks can sustain higher arousal for enhanced performance.
Awareness of these arousal levels can help individuals prepare better for performance scenarios such as tests or competitions.
Reflection: Ask yourself how you've helped your body maintain homeostasis today, and consider performance implications in multiple scenarios like marathon running or test-taking under anxiety.