Foreign Policy DBQ
Different schools of thought and traditions about US foreign policy
American Exceptionalism: The belief that the U.S. is inherently different from (and often superior to) other nations due to its democratic ideals and history. It serves as a moral justification for expansion.
Interventionism: A policy of non-defensive proactive activity by a nation-state to manipulate an economy or society.
Isolationism: A policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.
Realism: Politics based on practical and material factors (power, economics, security) rather than theoretical or ethical objectives.
Idealism: The belief that a state should make its internal political philosophy the goal of its foreign policy (e.g., spreading democracy).
Moral Imperialism (Wilsonian): The desire to export American values and capitalism by force if necessary, under the guise of "helping" other nations see the "right" way to govern.
Military Interventionism: Specifically using the armed forces to intervene in another nation's internal affairs or to protect national interests.
Motivations for imperialism
Economic motivations
Definition: The desire to expand a nation's wealth by acquiring new sources of raw materials and creating new markets for manufactured goods.
Context: The Industrial Revolution created a massive surplus of goods in Western nations. They needed "captive markets" (colonies) to sell these goods and cheap labor to extract resources like rubber, oil, tin, and sugar.
Significance: This is often seen as the most powerful driver of imperialism, leading to the "Open Door Policy" in China and the annexation of Hawaii for sugar interests.
Military and strategic motivations
Definition: The acquisition of territories to serve as naval bases, coaling stations, or "buffer zones" to protect a nation's borders and trade routes.
Context: Alfred T. Mahan’s book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, argued that national greatness depended on a strong navy. To have a strong navy, a country needed ports around the world.
Significance: This led to the U.S. acquisition of Guantánamo Bay, the Panama Canal Zone, and the Philippines.
Political and nationalistic motivations
Definition: The belief that a nation’s power and prestige are measured by the amount of territory it controls.
Context: Intense competition between European powers (and later the U.S. and Japan) meant that if one country didn't claim a territory, a rival would. It was a race for global status.
Significance: It turned imperialism into a matter of "national honor," making it difficult for leaders to withdraw from territories without appearing weak.
Religious and moral motivations
Definition: The belief that Western nations had a duty to spread Christianity and "civilization" to the rest of the world.
Context: This was often framed as a humanitarian effort to improve the lives of "backward" peoples by introducing Western education, medicine, and law.
Significance: This provided a "moral" cover for exploitation. It is best exemplified by the phrase "The White Man’s Burden" and the concept of Moral Imperialism.
Ideological motivations (Social Darwinism)
Definition: The application of Charles Darwin’s "survival of the fittest" theory to human societies and nations.
Context: Imperialists argued that strong nations were naturally meant to dominate "weaker" ones. This was deeply rooted in racial hierarchies and the belief in the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race.
Significance: It justified the use of force and the denial of self-determination to colonized people, as seen in the Philippine War and the Insular Cases.
US policy in: Hawaii, China, the Philippines, and Latin America
Hawaii = economic interest and naval strategy
The Policy: The U.S. supported a coup by American sugar planters against Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. After a brief standoff, the U.S. formally annexed the islands in 1898 during the Spanish-American War.
The Motivation: Hawaii was the perfect "coaling station" (gas station for steamships) halfway to Asia. It also allowed American sugar to enter the U.S. market duty-free.
School of Thought: Realism. It was a cold, calculated move for economic gain and military positioning.
China = commercial interest
The Policy: Secretary of State John Hay issued the Open Door Notes (1899). This asked European powers to keep Chinese ports open to all nations and respect China’s territorial integrity.
The Motivation: The U.S. didn’t want to colonize China; it just wanted to trade there without being blocked by Britain or France. We wanted "most favored nation" status.
School of Thought: Idealism (rhetoric) / Realism (intent). The U.S. framed it as "protecting" China, but the goal was purely to ensure American corporations had access to Chinese consumers.
The Philippines = moral and strategic interest
The Policy: After the Spanish-American War, the U.S. bought the Philippines for $20 million. When Filipinos fought for independence, the U.S. suppressed them in the Philippine-American War (1899–1902).
The Motivation: To provide a massive military presence near China and to "uplift and Christianize" the population (despite many already being Catholic).
School of Thought: Military Interventionism and Moral Imperialism. This was the peak of the "White Man's Burden" ideology.
Latin America
The Policy: * Big Stick Diplomacy (TR): Using the threat of naval power to get what we wanted (e.g., the Panama Canal).
Dollar Diplomacy (Taft): Using American loans and business investment to gain influence instead of bullets.
The Motivation: To maintain stability in the Western Hemisphere and ensure that European creditors didn't use Latin American debt as an excuse to invade. The U.S. essentially acted as the "police" of the Caribbean.
School of Thought: Interventionism and Realism. The U.S. viewed the region as essential to its own national security and the success of the Panama Canal.
Key terms (these are of course related to the key points above):
City on a Hill
Definition: A phrase from John Winthrop’s 1630 sermon suggesting the Massachusetts Bay Colony would be a model for the world.
Significance: It is the theological and cultural root of American Exceptionalism, providing a "divine" justification for spreading American influence.
President: N/A (Colonial origin), but revived by 20th-century presidents.
School of Thought: American Exceptionalism.
Monroe Doctrine
Definition: A 1823 policy stating that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression.
Significance: It established the Western Hemisphere as an American "sphere of influence" and warned Europe to stay out.
President: James Monroe.
School of Thought: Isolationism (initially), but evolved into Interventionism.
Sphere of influence
Definition: A spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity.
Significance: This concept drove the "Scramble for China" and U.S. actions in Latin America.
President: Monroe / McKinley / T. Roosevelt.
School of Thought: Realism.
Hawaii (Annexation)
Definition: The 1898 incorporation of Hawaii as a U.S. territory after the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani by American sugar planters.
Significance: Provided a strategic mid-Pacific naval base (Pearl Harbor) and expanded the American sugar empire.
President: William McKinley (annexed it), though Cleveland opposed it.
School of Thought: Realism / Military Interventionism.
Yellow press
Definition: Journalism that presents little or no legitimate, well-researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers (Hearst and Pulitzer).
Significance: It inflamed public opinion against Spain, leading directly to the Spanish-American War.
President: William McKinley era.
School of Thought: Interventionism (as a catalyst) and American nationalism
U.S.S. Maine
Definition: An American battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898.
Significance: While likely an accident, the Yellow Press blamed Spain ("Remember the Maine!"), acting as the casus belli (cause for war).
President: William McKinley.
School of Thought: Military Interventionism.
Spanish American War
Definition: A conflict in 1898 between Spain and the U.S., effectively ending Spain's worldwide empire.
Significance: The U.S. emerged as a world power, gaining Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
President: William McKinley.
School of Thought: Military Interventionism / American Exceptionalism.
Platt and Teller amendments
Definition: The Teller Amendment (1898) stated the U.S. would not annex Cuba. The Platt Amendment (1901) replaced it, giving the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and maintain naval bases.
Significance: It created a "protectorate" status for Cuba, ensuring U.S. dominance without formal annexation.
President: McKinley (Teller) / T. Roosevelt (Platt).
School of Thought: Interventionism / Realism.
Guantánamo Bay
Definition: A section of Cuban land leased to the U.S. for a naval base under the Platt Amendment.
Significance: It established a permanent U.S. military presence in the Caribbean.
President: Theodore Roosevelt.
School of Thought: Military Interventionism / Realism.
The Philippine War
Definition: A brutal conflict (1899–1902) between U.S. forces and Filipino revolutionaries seeking independence.
Significance: It highlighted the contradictions of American Imperialism—fighting a war to suppress the same independence the U.S. once fought for.
President: McKinley / T. Roosevelt.
School of Thought: Military Interventionism / Moral Imperialism.
Open Door Policy
Definition: A policy proposed by the U.S. in 1899 under which ALL nations would have equal opportunities to trade in China.
Significance: It was designed to prevent any one power (like Japan or Britain) from monopolizing Chinese trade.
President: William McKinley.
School of Thought: Idealism (framed as "fairness") / Realism (economic interest).
The Insular Cases
Definition: A series of Supreme Court rulings (1901) that determined the Constitution does not automatically apply to people in newly acquired territories.
Significance: It meant that "the Constitution does not follow the flag," allowing the U.S. to govern colonies without granting full citizenship rights.
President: McKinley / T. Roosevelt era.
School of Thought: Realism.
The “White Man’s Burden”
Definition: A poem by Rudyard Kipling (1899) urging the U.S. to take up the "burden" of empire.
Significance: It characterized imperialism as a noble, self-sacrificing duty to "civilize" non-white populations.
President: McKinley / T. Roosevelt era.
School of Thought: American Exceptionalism / Moral Imperialism.
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
Definition: An 1904 addition to the Monroe Doctrine stating the U.S. has the right to intervene in Latin American nations to prevent "chronic wrongdoing."
Significance: It turned the U.S. into an "international police power" in the Western Hemisphere.
President: Theodore Roosevelt.
School of Thought: Interventionism / Realism.
Panama Canal Zone
Definition: A strip of land across the Isthmus of Panama that the U.S. built and controlled after supporting a Panamanian revolt against Colombia.
Significance: It revolutionized global trade and military naval movement by connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
President: Theodore Roosevelt.
School of Thought: Realism / Military Interventionism.
Presidential Eras:
William McKinley (1897–1901): The Reluctant Imperialist. He was pressured into the Spanish-American War by the Yellow Press and the Maine, but eventually embraced expansion in the Philippines and Hawaii.
Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909): The Big Stick Realist. He didn't wait for events to happen; he made them happen (Panama Canal, Corollary). He believed the U.S. should lead through military strength.
William Howard Taft (1909–1913): Dollar Diplomacy. He shifted toward Realism/Economic Interventionism, using American money and investments to control Latin America rather than just the navy.
Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921): Moral Imperialism (Wilsonianism). He hated "Big Stick" and "Dollar" diplomacy, preferring Idealism. He believed the U.S. should only help "good" democratic nations—though he still used the military to intervene in Mexico and Haiti.
1. The Foundation (Pre-Imperialist Era)
1823 | Monroe Doctrine
President: James Monroe
School of Thought: Isolationism (defensive) / Realism (strategic).
Significance: Established the Western Hemisphere as a U.S. "sphere of influence" by telling Europe to stop colonizing the Americas.
2. The McKinley Era (1897–1901): The Birth of Empire
1890s | The Yellow Press & "City on a Hill"
President: William McKinley
School of Thought: American Exceptionalism.
Significance: Sensationalist news used the "City on a Hill" rhetoric to argue that the U.S. had a moral duty to help Cuba, stirring up public support for war.
Feb 1898 | U.S.S. Maine Explosion
President: William McKinley
School of Thought: Military Interventionism.
Significance: The immediate spark for war; blamed on Spain by the Yellow Press.
April 1898 | Teller Amendment
President: William McKinley
School of Thought: Idealism.
Significance: Congress promised the U.S. would not annex Cuba, framing the war as a selfless crusade for liberty.
1898 | Spanish-American War
President: William McKinley
School of Thought: Military Interventionism.
Significance: The U.S. defeats Spain in 114 days, acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
July 1898 | Annexation of Hawaii
President: William McKinley
School of Thought: Realism.
Significance: McKinley pushed for annexation during the war to secure a naval "stepping stone" to the Philippines and China.
1899 | Open Door Policy
President: William McKinley
School of Thought: Realism (economic) / Idealism (diplomatic).
Significance: Attempted to keep China open for trade with all nations, preventing a European monopoly.
1899–1902 | The Philippine War
President: McKinley / T. Roosevelt (after McKinley’s assassination)
School of Thought: Military Interventionism / Moral Imperialism.
Significance: A brutal conflict to suppress Filipino independence; justified as the "White Man's Burden" to civilize the islands.
3. The Roosevelt Era (1901–1909): The Big Stick
1901 | The Insular Cases
President: Theodore Roosevelt
School of Thought: Realism.
Significance: The Supreme Court ruled that constitutional rights didn't "follow the flag" to territories, allowing the U.S. to rule colonies without making them citizens.
1901 | Platt Amendment
President: Theodore Roosevelt
School of Thought: Interventionism.
Significance: Overrode the Teller Amendment; it gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuba and established Guantánamo Bay.
1903 | Panama Canal Zone
President: Theodore Roosevelt
School of Thought: Military Interventionism / Realism.
Significance: TR backed a Panamanian revolution against Colombia to secure the land for the canal, revolutionizing global trade.
1904 | Roosevelt Corollary
President: Theodore Roosevelt
School of Thought: Interventionism.
Significance: Expanded the Monroe Doctrine, claiming the U.S. could act as an "international police power" in Latin America to maintain stability.
4. The Wilson Era (1913–1921): The Moral Pivot
1913–1917 | Wilson’s Moral Imperialism
President: Woodrow Wilson
School of Thought: Moral Imperialism (Wilsonianism) / Idealism.
Significance: Wilson intervened in Mexico and Haiti not for "land," but to force them to elect "good men" and adopt democracy—spreading American values by force.