Human Origins

Why Study Origins?

• Provides a starting point for understanding humanity.

• Definitions of origins shape individual and collective identities.

Human Characteristics

• Humans (Homo sapiens) are classified as Apes.

• Key traits:

  • Shape of teeth

  • Absence of a tail

  • Arms adapted for swinging

• Hominins: Apes sharing a common ancestor with humans (e.g., chimpanzees, gorillas).

• Notable genus: Australopithus.

Evolutionary Tree

• Illustrates human and great ape evolution over millions of years.

• Common ancestors of great apes date back 25 million years.

Piltdown Man Hoax

• Piltdown Man (Eoanthropus dawsoni) claimed to be a missing link; later proved a hoax (1953).

• Highlights the need for scientific scrutiny in evidence assessment.

Characteristics Defining Hominins

• 1920s discoveries indicated Australopithecines were small-brained, bipedal.

• Example: Dart’s Taung Child (Australopithecus africanus, ~3-2.5 million years ago).

Fossil Evidence

• Fossils are primary source for understanding human origins.

• Geology impacts fossil location and preservation.

Major African Fossil Sites

• South Africa, East Africa, Lake Chad Basin noted for early hominin fossils.

• Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis, ~2.9 million years ago) and Laetoli footprints (3.8-3.5 million years ago) provide key evidence of bipedalism.

Stone Tool Technology

• Lithic technology involves the reduction process (core & flake identification).

• Oldowan tools (1.85 million years) represent early technology used for scavenging.

Trends in Early Human Evolution

• Key trends include emergence of bipedalism (3-4 mya), stone tool usage (2-3 mya), and increased brain size after 2 million years due to diet changes.

• Various hominin species coexisted and utilized tools by 2 million years ago.

Notes on Human Settlement and Migration

• Human Settlement Overview

  • Examines the global migration and settlement patterns of Homo species, emphasizing key milestones.

  • Covers the emergence of modern humans in Africa and subsequent migrations globally, including into the Americas.

• Writing Assignment Details

  • Artifact description essay due 3/5/2025, focusing on cultural significance and context of artifacts.

  • Questions include the object's appearance, cultural associations, manufacturing, usage, and archaeological implications.

• Homo Species and Migration

  • Homo sapiens emerged in Africa (150,000-200,000 years ago).

  • Migration into Asia (50,000-70,000 years ago) and the New World (15,000-30,000 years ago) followed.

  • Discovery of Denisovans and Homo naledi adds complexity to human ancestry and migration.

• Art and Technology in the Upper Paleolithic

  • Innovations in tool-making techniques (blade production, atlatls).

  • Artistic expressions including mobile art (figurines, carvings) and parietal art in caves (Lascaux, Chauvet).

  • Evidence of complex social structures in settlements like Dolni Vestonice with early ceramics and communal living.

• Paleoindian Settlement in the Americas

  • Discussion on the timing and routes of human migration into the Americas, focusing on the contentious "Clovis First" theory.

  • Evidence of pre-Clovis sites like Monte Verde and Meadowcroft with dates older than Clovis tools.

  • Genetic studies suggest multiple migration events and interactions among various hominin groups, influencing Native American ancestry.

Hunter-Gatherers and the Colonization of the Americas

• Lecture Overview

  • Exploration of human entry into the Americas

  • Definition and significance of hunter-gatherers

  • Importance of variation among hunter-gatherer societies

• Clovis First Model

  • Proposed that Clovis-like groups migrated from Siberia to North America ~13,000 years ago via a land bridge

  • Issues with the model:

  • No Clovis technology found in northern Alaska

  • Ice-Free Corridor accessibility debated

  • Earlier sites and different technology traditions found on the West Coast

• Migration Routes

  • Hypothesized routes include:

  1. Land migration route

  2. Coastal migration route via the Kelp Highway

• Transportation at White Sands, NM

  • Footprints dated to ~22,000 years ago indicating advanced transport technology

• Genetic Studies

  • Modern Native Americans trace ancestry to Siberia and East Asia

  • Adaptation and migration patterns from Beringia

• Clovis Culture

  • Not the earliest culture in North America

  • Existed ca. 13,200 to 12,800 BP with connections to megafauna

  • Varied local adaptations and lifestyles

• Subsistence and Ecology

  • Diverse ways of sustaining life from naturally occurring resources

  • Mobility as a critical factor for resource management

  • Variation influenced by environmental factors and resource availability

• Changing Perspectives on Hunter-Gatherers

  • Historical views labeled H-Gs as primitive and brutish

  • Modern perspectives recognize them as socially harmonious and affluent

• Sociopolitical Types

  • Bands: small, egalitarian, with mobile lifestyles

  • Resource management and social structure frameworks

• Bison Hunting Techniques

  • Advanced communal strategies for hunting bison, including engineered landscapes

  • Use of buffalo jumps and social organization around resource procurement

• Future Study Points

  • Understanding ecological relationships and cultural practices of ancient hunter-gatherers

  • The role of climate change in shaping human adaptation and survival

  • Analysis of archaeological finds for better understanding of past human behaviors and technologies.

Lecture Overview

• Definition and significance of hunter-gatherers

• Variation among hunter-gatherers post-Ice Age

Sociopolitical Types

• Morton Fried and Elman Service's hierarchal model: Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, State

• Bands synonymous with "Hunter-Gatherers"

Generalized Features of Bands

• Small population size

• Large land-use scale

• Egalitarian access to resources

• Division of labor based only on age and sex

• Reciprocity in exchange

• Mobile settlement patterns

• Dispute resolution via fissioning

• Situational and non-permanent leadership

Access to Resources

• Egalitarianism as a cultural construct

• Reinforced through cultural actions (e.g., leveling mechanisms)

Mobility

• Key to resource sustainability

• Prevents overexploitation, minimizes energy use, eases social tensions

Hunter-Gatherer Ecology

• Diversity influenced by environmental factors:

  • Availability of resources (plants vs. animals)

  • Structure (patchy vs. widespread)

  • Timing (perennial vs. seasonal)

  • Reliability (predictable vs. unpredictable)

Seasonal Diets

• Example: Copper Inuit's seasonal diet includes seal, polar bear, fish, caribou

• Jomon period in Japan featured varied seasonal subsistence activities

Archaeological Insights into Diet

• Analysis of human bones reveals distinct chemical signatures of diet (marine, terrestrial, agricultural)

Ice Core Studies

• Ice cores reveal historical temperature patterns through isotopic analysis

• Correlation of heavy and light oxygen isotopes with past climate conditions

Holocene Period (11,700 years ago)

• Transition from Pleistocene to Holocene marked by warmer temperatures and rising sea levels

Hunter-Gatherers in North America

• Diverse practices, particularly prior to plant domestication

• Major regions include Arctic, West Coast/Plateau, Plains, Great Basin, Lower Southeast

Aquatic Resource Exploitation

• Increased focus on shellfish, fish, and other aquatic resources in Holocene

Midden Analysis

• Organic materials preserved in middens (bones, plant remains)

• Example from Koster, Illinois, indicating reliance on waterways and mixed subsistence

Bison Hunting Practices

• Middle Archaic Plains cultures developed advanced hunting techniques for bison

• Bison jumps utilized repeated strategies for hunting

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump

• Evidence of engineered drive lanes for successful bison hunts

• Long-term usage and social organization in hunting practices

Lecture Overview

• Variation in human societies during the Holocene post-ice age.

• Definition and characteristics of "complex" hunter-gatherers.

North American Hunter-Gatherers

• Extensive record of hunter-gatherer communities.

• Communities relied on naturally occurring resources, domestication of plants began later (after 5000 years ago).

• Major regions include Arctic, West Coast/Plateau, Plains, Great Basin, Lower Southeast, and Florida.

Aquatic Resource Exploitation

• Increased utilization of aquatic resources during the Holocene (fish, shellfish).

• Shell middens (kitchen refuse sites): significant for archaeological evidence (e.g., Carrier Mills, Koster).

Plains Hunter-Gatherers

• Adaptations to environmental changes (e.g., droughts).

• Bison hunting strategies became prominent, leading to winter provisioning practices.

• Notable practices included communal hunting at bison jumps (e.g., Head-Smashed-In).

Complex Hunter-Gatherers

• Characteristics: larger populations, reduced mobility, social stratification, evidence of craft specialization.

• Variations exist between simple and complex forms based on resource abundance.

Intensification

• Emergence of complex societies through intensified resource exploitation.

• Technological innovations (e.g., storage facilities) and social organization contributed to these changes.

Late Archaic Period (5800-3200 BP)

• Marked by social innovations and extensive network exchanges.

• Pottery development and large settlements, including monument construction.

Stallings Culture and Pottery

• Development and techniques in pottery; specific tempering methods (Spanish Moss).

• Pottery linked to social contexts and exchanges within populations.

Economic Interactions

• Exchange networks existed among different cultural groups, influencing resource usage and social organization.

• Evidence of craft items and importation of materials across regions.

Mound Building Traditions

• Mound construction (e.g., Poverty Point) characterized by complex social practices without agriculture.

• The study of these sites indicates cultural significance in community organization and resource management.

Summary Insights

• Early pottery emerged alongside social gatherings indicating increased societal complexity.

• Hunter-gatherer societies displayed significant variation influenced by resource availability and social interactions.

Neolithic Overview

• Important Transition: The shift from foraging to farming marked the Neolithic period, considered the most significant event in human history.

• Domestication: Involves human interference in plant and animal life cycles, resulting in more reliable yields and loss of reproductive fitness.

Key Concepts of Domestication

• Foragers to Farmers: The transition was based on domesticated species with higher yields and reliability compared to wild varieties.

• Cultivation: Defined as the deliberate care for species, leading to concentrated harvests but requiring substantial labor.

• Evolution of Agriculture: Intentional selection of plant traits results in dependence on humans for survival.

Impact of Agriculture

• Sedentary Settlements: Necessary for intensive agriculture, allowing for the construction of permanent facilities and accumulation of material culture.

• Population Growth: Increased fertility and population size but led to health declines and conflict due to resource competition.

Case Studies

• Natufians: Complex hunter-gatherers in the Levant (14,000 - 11,600 BP) who created sedentary communities and utilized stone tools for harvesting.

• Göbekli Tepe: An archaeological site featuring monumental structures that may indicate early social complexity without agriculture.

• Abu Hureyra: Evidence of subsistence strategies exploiting wild cereals, later transitioning to cultivation during climatic changes.

Models of Farming Origins

• Proposed Models:

  • Oasis Hypothesis: Agriculture arose in fertile areas.

  • Hilly Flanks Hypothesis: Natural habitats were the centers of domestication.

  • Broad Spectrum Revolution: Social factors influenced the adoption of farming.

Archaeobotany and Zooarchaeology

• Paleoethnobotany: Examines ancient plant usage through preserved remains and their comparison to modern varieties.

• Zooarchaeology: Studies animal domestication through skeletal morphology and changes in human-animal relationships.

Conclusion

• The Neolithic Revolution dramatically transformed human societies, emphasizing the importance of agriculture and its long-term socio-economic impacts.

• Neolithic Overview

  • Focus on early domesticates and domestication methods in archaeology.

• Paleoethnobotany / Archaeobotany

  • Examines ancient plant use via preserved remains (e.g., charred materials).

  • Floatation method used to recover botanical remains for study.

• Identifying Domesticates

  • Morphological Analysis: Compares ancient preserved plant remains with modern varieties.

  • Genetic Analysis: Uses DNA comparisons to identify changes in plants.

• Barley Domestication

  • Wild barley has a brittle rachis causing seeds to shatter.

  • Cultivated barley has a tough rachis to retain seeds during harvesting.

• Zooarchaeology

  • Studies animal domestication through skeletal morphology and demographic profiles.

  • Uses aDNA (ancient DNA) and stable isotopes to trace animal origins and migrations.

• Stable Isotope Analysis

  • Helps in understanding animal diets, migration patterns, and human-animal relationships.

  • Reflects on close human-animal interactions, such as husbandry.

• Domestication Pathways

  • Multiple independent domestication events across different regions.

  • Influenced by environmental and social reasons.

• Regional Domestication Examples

  • Eastern USA: Maize and other crops domesticated circa 2000-1000 BC.

  • Central Mexico: Maize domesticated from teosinte, alongside beans and squash.

  • East Asia: Millet and rice cultivated distinctively in China.

• Agricultural Trends

  • Variation in domestication and agricultural practices across different regions.

• Eastern Agricultural Complex

  • Key crops included Chenopods, Maygrass, and others cultivated independently in the Eastern US.

  • Notable late introduction of maize around 2000 BP, becoming influential later (around 950 BP).

• Cultivation Indicators

  • Presence of weedy species in early agriculture shifts their status from wild to cultivated through human intervention.

Neolithic Overview

• Definition and Importance

  • Neolithic: transition to farming, significant event in human history

  • Shift from foraging to farming

• Geographical Context

  • Key regions: Southwest Asia, Middle East

  • Example cultures: Natufians (complex hunters), Pre-Pottery Neolithic farmers

  • Sites of significance: Çatalhöyük, Göbekli Tepe, Abu Hureyra

• Theories of Domestication

  • Various models explaining the origins of farming:

  • Oasis hypothesis (Childe)

  • Hilly flanks/natural habitat (Braidwood)

  • Broad Spectrum Revolution (Flannery)

  • Social hypothesis blending elements from models

• Key Periods

  • Natufian Period (14,000 - 11,600 BP):

  • Characteristics: long-lived sedentary communities, exploitation of grasses, increased social complexity

  • Pre-Pottery Neolithic (11,600 - 8900 BP):

  • Full-scale farming, new community structures, technological innovations, and establishment of exchange networks

• Ecology and Domestication

  • Environmental changes impact domesticated species

  • Younger Dryas: drought led to cultivation focus on drought-resistant crops like rye

  • Recognition of distinct morphological and genetic traits in domestic plants and animals

• Technological Advances

  • Emergence of new tools (e.g., sickles, threshing sleds) for farming

  • Use of stable isotopes for understanding animal migrations and relationships with humans

• Research Methods

  • Paleoethnobotany and Zooarchaeology: studying ancient plant use and animal domestication through remains

  • Identifying domesticated plants and animals using archaeological evidence and genetic analysis

• Social and Ecological Implications

  • Transition led to new social hierarchies, ritual life, and adaptation mechanisms to environmental stressors

  • Formation of rituals and communal activities as seen in sites like Göbekli Tepe, which predates farming but indicates social complexity

• Conclusion

  • The Neolithic revolution marks a significant transition that laid the groundwork for modern societies, characterized by new technologies, social structures, and ecological adaptations.

• Spread of Neolithic Farming in Europe

  • Farmers migrated from SW Asia to Europe, introducing agriculture and domesticated animals.

  • Evidence from radiocarbon dating and genetic studies indicates complex interactions:

  • Replacement of some hunter-gatherer cultures.

  • Interbreeding with local populations in areas like Denmark.

  • Three waves of farmers identified through DNA and archaeological sites.

• Neolithic Monuments

  • Monument construction was a significant aspect of Neolithic community life in Europe.

  • Purposes included:

  • Communal mortuaries

  • Astronomical observation

  • Prestige and social gatherings.

• Types of Megalithic Monuments:

  • Menhirs: Standing stones, possibly with astronomical significance (e.g., Carnac, NW France).

  • Henges: Enclosures with standing stones or timber, often associated with burials.

  • Tombs: Types include dolmens, gallery graves, and passage graves.

• Stonehenge:

  • Located in a rich archaeological landscape, aligned with astronomical events.

  • Linked to burial practices with evidence of cremations in ditches.

  • May represent a unifying monument bringing together diverse communities.

  • Bluestones sourced from Prescelly Mountains and transported to the site.

• Durrington Walls:

  • Seasonal settlement related to Stonehenge, featuring numerous small houses for temporary inhabitants.

  • Evidence suggests seasonal feasting rather than year-round habitation.

• Ötzi the Iceman:

  • A significant Late Neolithic find, providing insights into health, diet, and daily life.

  • His well-preserved body includes clothing, tools (like a copper axe), and dietary remnants (goat bacon).

  • Ötzi reveals details of travel and health, including tattoos possibly linked to acupuncture.