Lecture 16: The Hellenistic World: Post-Alexander Succession and the Rise of the Three Kingdoms
The Circumstances Surrounding the Death of Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great died in the year 323BCE
He died at a relatively young age, being only in his early thirties.
Rumors of foul play and poisoning arose immediately following his death due to his youth, though historical accounts suggest a combination of physical factors likely contributed to his passing.
Alexander's physical health had been compromised by his intense lifestyle: * He had spent years in nonstop campaigning. * He was known for leading from the front, participating in desperate charges and pursuits. * He suffered numerous and severe injuries throughout his campaigns. * He was prone to feverish illnesses, including one instance where he was left practically paralyzed for several days. * He engaged in significant binge drinking, which negatively impacted his health.
The lecturer notes that given his physical exertion, injuries, and lifestyle, the wonder is not that he died so young, but that he managed to live as long as he did.
Succession and the Partition of the Empire
No formal arrangements for succession had been made before Alexander's death because of his young age.
Alexander had three wives at the time of his death, which the lecturer characterizes as political marriages.
Roxanne, one of his wives, was heavily pregnant and due to give birth shortly after his death, which complicated the succession issue.
A compromise for the succession was reached: * The immediate successor would be Philip the third, Alexander's older brother. * Philip the third was described as "feeble minded," but this mental disability was not considered a bar to being the King of Macedonia. * If Roxanne's child was a boy, he would serve as co-king alongside Philip the third. * Roxanne did deliver a son a few weeks later, who duly became the co-king.
The Regency of Perdiccas and the Ambitions of Ptolemy
Because one co-king was a babe in arms and the other suffered from mental illness, the empire required a regent.
Perdiccas, one of Alexander's senior marshals, was appointed as the regent.
Perdiccas was responsible for distributing the satrapies (provinces) and making arrangements for the empire's administration.
Ptolemy was appointed as the satrap of Egypt.
Ptolemy's Strategic Positioning: * Ptolemy was an ambitious officer who recognized the unique geography of Egypt. * Egypt was an outlying province connected to the rest of the empire by only a narrow strip of land with one good road. * While Egypt was technically part of the Persian Empire, it had often been independent or in revolt; it had been independent for approximately years shortly before Alexander's arrival. * Ptolemy quickly moved to convert the satrapy into an independent kingdom. * One of Ptolemy's primary early projects was to heavily fortify the approaches to Egypt.
The Regency of Antipater and the Assignment of Seleucus to Babylon
A civil war broke out between the former marshals by the end of as Ptolemy and Perdiccas became bitter enemies.
In early , Perdiccas led an army to Egypt to oust Ptolemy, but the offensive bogged down at the border due to Ptolemy's fortifications.
During this failed invasion, Perdiccas was assassinated, presumably on a specific person's orders.
Following the death of Perdiccas, a new regent was required: Antipater. * Antipater had been the viceroy left behind by Alexander in Macedonia since at the start of the campaign. * Antipater became regent of the full empire and redistributed the satrapies.
The appointment of Seleucus: * Seleucus was a young officer who rose to prominence late in Alexander's life. * His breakthrough came in when he was placed in charge of the imperial cavalry. * In , Antipater appointed Seleucus as the satrap of Babylon.
The Era of Warlords and Shifting Alliances
Antipater's settlement did not last long because he was very old and died a couple of years later.
After Antipater's death, there was no generally recognized regent, and control devolved to various warlords.
A "rule of thumb" emerged during the subsequent wars: whenever one warlord appeared close to winning or gaining total control, the others would form an alliance against him.
Significant Warlords and their Coinage: * Ptolemy: Initially minted coins with Alexander's image and the legend "King Alexander." Around , he shifted to coins bearing his own image and the legend "King Ptolemy." * Seleucus: He was described as a "shy one" regarding coins; he never placed his own face on coins during his lifetime. His image only appeared on coins after his death. * Antigonus Monophthalmos ("One-Eye"): He established a significant territory but never put his face on coins. * Demetrius Poliorcetes: The son of Antigonus Monophthalmos, described as vainglorious, had no problem putting his image on coins.
Strategic Diplomacy and the Military Importance of War Elephants
Seleucus used diplomacy to extend his control over the eastern half of the empire bordering India.
He entered into a treaty with Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire.
In exchange for land along the Indus River, Seleucus acquired war elephants.
These elephants became the foundation of the Seleucid military strength.
Seleucus was so proud of these elephants that they often appeared on the reverse of his coins with the legend "Vasileko" (of King) Zeus.
Memorable accounts and archaeological evidence, such as commemorations of battles against the Galatians, associate the Seleucids heavily with war elephants.
Economic and Naval Power: The Role of Lusimachus and Strategic Resources
Lusimachus was another successful warlord who built control over Thrace.
He was known for particularly splendid coinage and was notoriously careful with finances, earning him the nickname "money counter" from Demetrius.
Lusimachus's financial discipline allowed him to hire many mercenaries from the overpopulated regions of Greece.
The Strategic Significance of Cedar: * Ptolemaic military strength was based on naval power, earned through the control of Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) and Cyprus. * These regions contained the Atlas cedar, which the lecturer notes is the best shipbuilding wood in the ancient world. * The lecturer compares the value of cedar in antiquity to modern strategic metals like nickel or cobalt. * Because the Ptolemies controlled the regions where these trees grew, they maintained the only significant fleet in the area, leading Demetrius to nickname Ptolemy "boat master."
The Battle of Ipsus and the Tripartite Division
The climactic showdown between the warlords occurred at the Battle of Ipsus in Central Asia Minor in the year .
An alliance of Seleucus, Lusimachus, and (nominally) Ptolemy faced off against Antigonus Monophthalmos and Demetrius.
Ptolemy's Cautious Retreat: * Ptolemy heard a false rumor that Antigonus had already defeated Seleucus and Lusimachus. * Being a cautious man, he retreated to Egypt to strengthen his fortifications, but left behind garrisons in Syria and Phoenicia.
The Result of Ipsus: * Antigonus and Demetrius were defeated. * The empire was divided into three main portions: 1. Ptolemy: Egypt, Phoenicia, and Cyprus. 2. Seleucus: The bulk of the empire (the East). 3. Lusimachus: Western Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece.
The Conflict at Corupedium and the Stabilization of the Three Kingdoms
Selecting his moment carefully for two decades, Seleucus eventually invaded Lusimachus's kingdom in the late two eighties.
Lusimachus had become unpopular due to his strict financial policies and high taxes.
The decisive Battle of Corupedium took place in , resulting in a complete victory for Seleucus.
Following the victory, Seleucus crossed into Europe for the first time since , seeing his birthplace after five decades away.
Shortly after crossing, Seleucus was assassinated.
Ultimately, the Hellenistic world stabilized into three kingdoms: 1. The Antigonids: Controlling Macedonia, led eventually by Antigonus Gonatus (grandson of Monophthalmos and son of Demetrius). 2. The Ptolemies: Controlling Egypt. 3. The Seleucids: Controlling the largest portion, including Western Asia Minor and the East.
The Administrative Continuity of the Persian Empire
The lecturer points out that if one removes Egypt (which was never well-integrated) and Macedonia/Greece from the map, the Seleucid Kingdom was essentially the old Persian Empire.
The Persians had fashioned such a coherent administrative and political unit that it survived-conquest by Alexander and years of civil wars.
The empire essentially emerged under "new management" rather than being fundamentally broken as an administrative unit.
The Process of Hellenization and Cultural Imperialism
The Greeks formed a ruling class over diverse non-Greek peoples and acted as "cultural imperialists par excellence."
Characteristics of Hellenization: * The Greeks generally refused to learn local languages (such as Aramaic). * They insisted that all official business and trade be conducted in Greek. * They issued decrees and minted coins with Greek legends. * They imported surplus populations from the overpopulated Greek mainland to settle in new cities. * Indigenous peoples who wished to engage in trade or progress socially were forced to assimilate and learn Greek.
Greek Urbanism: City Foundations and Architectural Features
Hellenistic kings, particularly the Seleucids, founded numerous cities on the Greek model.
Every proper Greek city was expected to have specific architectural features: * Theater: An essential cultural marker. * Gymnasium: A place for Greek men to exercise and engage in athletics (wrestling, discus). * Agora: A Greek-style assembly or marketplace. * Grand Colonnade: A new feature uniquely characteristic of Hellenistic city planning, often running through the center of the city.
Case Studies of Hellenistic Cities: Alexandria, Antioch, and Aikanum
Alexandria: Founded by Alexander the Great, featuring the Pharos lighthouse in the harbor.
Antioch and the Tetrapolus: The Seleucids founded four major cities in Syria with dynastic names: * Antioch (Antiochea): Named after Seleucus's father. * Seleucaea: A harbor city named after Seleucus himself. * Laodicea: Named after Seleucus's mother. * Apamea: Named after Seleucus's wife.
Judea and its Neighbors: Judea was flanked by two Ptolemaic foundations: * Ptolemais: In the West. * Philadelphia: In the East, founded by Ptolemy the second Philadelphus ("sibling loving"). * These cities exerted immense cultural and economic influence on rural Judea, making the "yokels" on farms envious of the city dwellers' fashion and lifestyle.
Aikanum (Iconum): Located on the Axis River in modern Afghanistan. * Despite being on the far eastern edge of the empire, it was a "perfect Greek city." * Excavations revealed a gymnasium, a theater, an agora, and political decrees written in Greek. * The settlers arrived from Greece and maintained a strictly Greek lifestyle, refusing to learn local languages.
Questions & Discussion
A student asked for clarification on the Macedonian phalanx formation.
Response: The phalanx was organized in files that were men deep.
The men in the first five ranks held their "cerise" (sarissas, a 15-foot spear) horizontally so that they protruded in front of the line.
The remaining men in the rear of the file held their sarissas upward at approximately a degree angle.