Study Notes on The Civil Rights Movement (1950s & 1960s)

THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: 1950s & 1960s

BIG QUESTION

The central question guiding this exploration of the Civil Rights Movement is: How and why did the goals of the Civil Rights Movement change over time? This question opens the discourse into the evolving nature of the movement, which shifted in tactics, goals, and public perceptions across the decades of the 1950s and 1960s.

TIMELINE OF SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

1954: Brown v. Board of Education

In this landmark case, the Supreme Court overruled the previous decision of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation. The ruling in Brown v. Board of Education declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, paving the way for desegregation across the United States.

1955: Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott

The act of Rosa Parks refusing to give up her bus seat to a white person led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott. This significant event aimed at de-segregating the public transport system in Montgomery, Alabama, demonstrating the power of organized, peaceful protest.

1957: The Little Rock Nine

The integration of the Little Rock Central High School faced severe backlash, notably from Governor Faubus, who resisted the integration. In response to the escalating tension and violence, President Eisenhower sent in federal troops to protect the nine black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, allowing them to attend school.

1960: The Greensboro Four and the Sit-In Movement

Four African American students known as the Greensboro Four staged a sit-in at a “white only” lunch counter at Woolworth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina. This act of civil disobedience became a catalyst for the Sit-In Movement, inspiring similar protests across the country.

1961: Freedom Rides

The Freedom Rides consisted of organized mixed-race groups traveling on interstate buses into the southern states to protest and draw attention to the racial segregation practices that still existed in public transportation. Their journey highlighted the ongoing struggle against Jim Crow laws.

1963: March on Washington

This prominent event is historically significant for Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic “I Have a Dream” speech, alongside other leaders like John L. Lewis. The March on Washington gathered massive national attention and solidarity for the civil rights movement, emphasizing the need for racial equality and economic justice.

1964: Freedom Summer

The Freedom Summer initiative sought to increase voter registration among African Americans in the south, particularly in Mississippi. This campaign faced severe violence and opposition but marked a pivotal moment in the struggle for voting rights.

1965: Selma March

In response to systemic disenfranchisement, demonstrators marched from Selma, Alabama, to Montgomery, Alabama, to demand voting rights for African Americans. The march was met with violent resistance, which underscored the dire state of civil rights in the south and led to nationwide outrage.

IMPORTANT PEOPLE & GROUPS

Martin Luther King Jr.

A central figure in the Civil Rights Movement, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered the powerful “I Have a Dream” speech. Through his writings, including the “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” King articulated a commitment to nonviolent resistance as the foundation of the movement.

Congress on Racial Equality (CORE)

This organization played a vital role in the civil rights struggle, collaborating with other groups to initiate significant events like the Freedom Rides, the Freedom Summer voter registration project, and the March on Washington in 1963.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

Formed to mobilize black churches in support of civil rights, the SCLC aimed to harness the influence of religious institutions in the formation of civil rights policies.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Established by black college students, SNCC focused on organizing grassroots activism. Their initiatives were critical to the development of civil rights strategies and tactics during the movement.

ACCOMPLISHMENTS & SHORTCOMINGS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Major Legislative Achievements

  1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 - This legislation prohibited discrimination in public places and mandated the integration of schools and public facilities, making employment discrimination illegal.

  2. Voting Rights Act of 1965 - The Act outlawed discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests, that were previously used to disenfranchise black voters.

  3. Civil Rights Act of 1968 - This legislation included a ban on discrimination in the sale and rental of housing, addressing broader issues of equality within economic rights.

Shortcomings

Despite these legislative victories, the movement faced substantial challenges:

  • Lack of enforcement meant that many schools remained segregated even after the ruling of Brown v. Board, with considerable intimidation and violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan.

  • Southern states actively opposed desegregation, exemplified by the “Declaration of Constitutional Principles” in 1956, which pledged unwavering resistance to integration.

  • As of ten years post-Brown, only 2% of black students were in integrated classrooms with white students, highlighting the limited progress made toward actual desegregation.

Radicalization of the Movement

The perceived inadequacies in addressing racial injustices led to a radicalization of the movement, with events such as the Watts Riots and the emergence of figures like Malcolm X and the Black Panthers, led by individuals such as Huey Newton and Stokely Carmichael of SNCC, advocating for more immediate and sometimes militant approaches.

IMPACT OF THE VOTING RIGHTS ACT OF 1965

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was a significant milestone, addressing the previously rampant voter registration disparities in southern states. Before the Act:

  • Percent Registered (March 1965):

    • Black voter registration was alarmingly low, particularly in states like Alabama and Mississippi.

After the implementation of the Voting Rights Act (by September 1967):

  • The discrepancies began to show improvement, with noticeable increases in registered black voters, particularly illustrating a successful shift in voter registration practices.

QUOTATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Stokely Carmichael

Carmichael expressed a powerful critique of racial dynamics with statements like: “Now in speaking like this, it doesn't mean that we're anti-white, but it does mean we're anti-exploitation, we're anti-degradation, we're anti-oppression. And if the white man doesn't want us to be anti-him, let him stop oppressing and exploiting and degrading us.” This assertion reflects the sentiments leading to protected, more radical responses due to unfulfilled promises of equality.

Malcolm X

Malcolm X emphasized urgency in the fight for rights, declaring, “If we don't do something real soon, I think you'll have to agree that we're going to be forced either to use the ballot or the bullet. It's one or the other.” This stark assertion illustrates the radical shift in strategies observed within segments of the movement as times became increasingly desperate for change. His clarity on the immediacy of action solidified the movement's increase in radical rhetoric amid frustration with the slow pace of progress after 1964.