Exam 2 - Final Exam Review

The exam consists of 80 questions covering chapters 5, 6, and 7, along with the evolution module.
It will be a timed test with a total duration of 90 minutes once begun.
There will be no cumulative section.
Students MUST use Respondus Lockdown Browser with the camera and sound switched ON.
In case of device trouble, students can check out a laptop from the library, where the necessary software is preloaded.

Evolution Review

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin: An influential naturalist known for his contributions to the understanding of evolution.
Bird Study: He studied finches in the Galápagos Islands, leading to discoveries regarding adaptation and natural selection.

Three Main Tenets of Evolution

Variation: Individuals in a population exhibit variation in physical and behavioral traits.
Inheritance: Some traits are heritable and can be passed on to offspring.
Natural Selection: Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on.

Epigenetic Modification

Definition: Epigenetic modifications are changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence.

Lamarck’s Theory vs. Darwin’s Theory

Lamarck’s Theory: Proposed that organisms could pass on traits acquired during their lifetime (e.g., giraffe's neck length). This theory is often summarized as Lamarckism.
Darwin’s Theory: Introduced the concept of natural selection as the mechanism for evolution.
Evolutionary Theory Stance on Humans and Chimpanzees: Evolution does not state humans descended from chimpanzees; rather, both share a common ancestor.

Adaptive Behaviors and Their Impact

Adaptive Behaviors: Traits or behaviors that increase the chances of survival and reproduction.
Imprinting: A rapid learning process that occurs soon after birth, where young animals form attachments to their caregivers.
Altruism: A behavior where an individual benefits others at a cost to themselves; it can enhance evolutionary fitness through kin selection.
Sociobiology: The study of social behaviors in the context of evolution, focusing on how evolutionary principles such as natural selection influence social structures.

Reproductive Strategies

Different species adopt various reproductive strategies to ensure their survival.
Forms of Sexual Selection:
- Intrasexual Selection: Competition among individuals of one sex for mating opportunities.
- Intersexual Selection: Preferences by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.

Chapter 5 - Sensation and Perception

Definitions and Differences

Sensation: The process of receiving stimuli through sensory receptors.
Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.
Transduction: The conversion of physical energy from stimuli into neural energy.
Sensory Coding: The way sensory information is transformed into a format that is usable by the brain.

Psychophysics

Definition: The study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.
Thresholds: The minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected (absolute threshold).
Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected (Weber’s Law explains JND).
Signal Detection Method: A technique to determine the ability to differentiate between signal and noise, useful in various fields from psychology to telecommunications.

Vision

Light as a Stimulus: The properties of light—wavelength, amplitude, and purity—affect color perception.
Visual Pathways: Includes the optic nerve, thalamus, and visual cortex which process visual information.
Retina Cells: Consist of rods (low light) and cones (color) which transduce light into electrical signals.
Color Vision: The result of the interplay among different cone types sensitive to various wavelengths.

Audition

Sound as a Stimulus: Comprised of properties such as frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness).
Ear Structure: Includes the outer ear (pinna), middle ear (ossicles), and inner ear (cochlea). The cochlea contains hair cells that transduce sound.
Sound Localization: The ability to identify the direction from which a sound originates, aided by binaural cues.

Vestibular System

Balance and Spatial Orientation: The inner ear contains semicircular canals and otoliths that help maintain equilibrium. These structures are fluid-filled.

Somatosensory System

Skin Receptors: Respond to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature, providing sensory information to the brain.
Somatosensory Pathways: Includes the spinal cord and brain areas dedicated to processing sensory signals, notably the somatosensory cortex.

Olfactory System

Olfactory Bulb: The brain structure responsible for processing smell, with significant input from olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity.
Larger Olfactory Bulbs: Typically found in animals with a strong reliance on the sense of smell (e.g., dogs).

Gustatory System

Gustation: The sensory system for the sense of taste, with primary tastes being sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.
Taste Buds: Structures on the tongue that contain taste receptor cells, allowing for taste sensation.
Taste Map: The idea that different regions of the tongue detect different tastes has been debunked; all tastes can be tasted in all areas of the tongue.

Perceptual Processes

Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing: Top-down processing occurs when perception is driven by cognition; bottom-up processing begins with sensory input.
Gestalt Psychology: Studies how humans naturally organize sensory information into wholes.
- Principles: Include figure-ground, similarity, proximity, closure, continuity, etc.

Depth Perception and Constancies

Monocular vs. Binocular Cues: Monocular cues are available to either eye alone, while binocular cues require both eyes (e.g., convergence).
- Examples: Monocular cues include relative size and linear perspective; binocular cues involve retinal disparity.
Perceptual Constancies: Understanding that objects retain their recognizable characteristics despite changes in sensory input.

Chapter 6 - Learning

Instincts and Reflexes

Reflexes: Simple, involuntary responses to stimuli that are not learned.
Learning Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
Single Stimulus Learning Types: Include classical conditioning and operant conditioning, often seen in everyday scenarios such as fear response to loud noises (UCR) associated with experiences.

Classical Conditioning

Definition: A learning process through which a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).
Pavlov’s Procedure: Involved pairing a neutral stimulus (like a metronome) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to condition a response (salivation).

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning

US (Unconditioned Stimulus): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
UR (Unconditioned Response): The unlearned response that occurs naturally to the US.
CS (Conditioned Stimulus): An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an US, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Temporal Contiguity and Learning

Definition: The idea that for learning to occur in classical conditioning, the CS and US must be presented together in time.
Outcome of Delayed Pairing: If there’s a delay (e.g., 15 minutes), the association may not be learned effectively.

Taste Aversion and Aversion Therapy

Taste Aversion: The process through which an organism learns to avoid a specific taste after one bad experience.
Aversion Therapy: A behavioral therapy method that uses the principle of taste aversion to change unwanted behaviors.

Stimulus Generalization

Refers to the tendency for responses to be conditioned to one stimulus to be elicited by similar stimuli.

Little Albert Experiment

A study by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrating that emotional responses could be conditioned. Little Albert developed a fear of white rats and similar stimuli after being conditioned.

Operant Conditioning

Law of Effect

Definition: Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are not.

B.F. Skinner

A key figure in behaviorism who studied operant conditioning, focusing on reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement Types:
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a favorable outcome (e.g., rewards).
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unfavorable condition (e.g., seatbelt sound).
Punishment Types:
- Positive Punishment: Adding an unfavorable outcome (e.g., scolding).
- Negative Punishment: Removing a favorable condition (e.g., taking away privileges).
Token Economy: A system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement Schedules

Ratio Schedules: Based on the number of responses.
- Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.
Interval Schedules: Based on time intervals.
- Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period.
- Variable Interval: Reinforcement after an unpredictable time period.

Processes of Learning

Key Definitions

Acquisition: The process of developing a conditioned response.
Shaping: A method of training by reinforcing progressively closer approximations to the desired behavior.
Extinction: The reduction of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the US.
- Relation to Intermittent Reinforcement: Extinction occurs less rapidly with intermittent reinforcement compared to continuous reinforcement.
- Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.

Chapter 7 - Memory

Three Stages of Memory

Encoding: The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored.
Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval: The ability to access stored information when needed.

Donald Hebb: Introduced theories about the biological basis of memory.

Brain Regions Involved in Memory

Hippocampus: Critical for the formation of new explicit memories.
Cerebellum: Involved in the memory of motor tasks (implicit memory).
H.M. Case Study: A famous patient who helped advance understanding of memory; had portions of his hippocampus removed, leading to profound amnesia for events post-surgery.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information (milliseconds).
Iconic Memory: Short visual memory lasting about 1 second.
Echoic Memory: Brief auditory memory lasting about 3-4 seconds.
Short-term Memory: Also called working memory, it holds a limited number of items (7 ± 2) for brief periods.

Long-term Memory

Definitions: A more permanent and limitless storehouse of memory, divided into:
- Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Memory with conscious recall, divided into:
- Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences.
- Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts.
- Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: Memory without conscious recall, including:
- Procedural Memory: Skills and tasks.
- Classical Conditioning Effects: Learned responses to stimuli.
- Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimulus.

Memory Effects

Flashbulb Memories: Detailed and vivid memories of emotionally significant events.
False or Repressed Memories: Inaccurate memories that a person believes to be true, often influenced by external suggestions.
Suggestibility: The tendency to incorporate misleading information into memory.

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall: Retrieving information without cues, often more difficult.
Recognition: Identifying information after being presented with it, easier than recall.

Theories of Forgetting

Proactive Interference: When old memories interfere with the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference: When new information interferes with the recall of old memories.